Idealizing Informing Functions

Acknowledgements

This book is the work of a collaborative group.

Contributors
Larry Ball (Primary Author)
David Troness
Kartik Ariyur
Jason Huang
Steve Hickman
Petr Krupansky
Larry Miller

Editors
Erika Ball
Larry Ball
David Troness
Paul Dwyer
Robert Lang

Illustrators
Larry Ball
David Troness

Other Authors, Theoreticians, Practitioners Whose Writings or Teachings have Impacted This Work
Genrich Altshuller
Ellen Domb
Roni Horowitz
John Terninko
Alla Zusman
Boris Zlotin
Lev Shulyak
Yuri Salamatov
Victor Fey
Eugene Rivin
Darrell Mann
Sergei Ikovenko
Simon Litvin
Peter Ulan
Lane Desborough
Clayton Christensen
Renee Mauborgne
Kim Chan

Where the Material Comes From

Much of the material for this book was inspired by the thought leaders referenced. The original intent was to codify the insights of these thought leaders, but the exercise of codification ultimately led to the synthesis of other experimental processes. This is because codification required recognizing patterns between similar tools. Once this was achieved, the various tools were grouped with key decisions. Decisions necessitate and generate information that flows to subsequent decisions. Patterns and gaps became visible during this formative process. Experimental methods were introduced to fill these gaps. The validity of these experimental methods lies in whether they assist the reader in identifying product or process characteristics that will captivate the market.

Introduction to Idealizing Informing Functions

Prerequisite Knowledge:
If you have not read the TRIZ Power Tools Working with Functions, please do so before reading this book.

Informing Functions (Measurement and Detection)

Informing functions pertain to measurement or detection. Measurement is indeed a subclass of useful functions, but there are additional considerations that we need to take into account. First, the subject is the object being measured or detected. It serves as the tool of the useful function. It modifies or informs the product or observer. This may seem counterintuitive compared to what we would typically state in English. “The thermometer measures the water temperature.” From the English perspective, it would seem that the thermometer is altering the water by measuring it. In actuality, the water affects the thermometer. It changes the temperature of the thermometer, which, in turn, informs or modifies the observer. This is a classic example of a “confusing function.” The direction of the function always goes from the subject to the observer. For the remainder of this book, we will refer to the tool as the subject and the product as the observer.

Another difference between informing functions and useful functions is that there is a known “observer” somewhere in the system. Unlike a typical useful function, where the only necessary part is the product, there is also a required and recognized observer. This imposes constraints on the search for an ideal subject, the informing modification, physical phenomena, and the observer. Describing this in functional terms, there exists a functional chain between the object that needs to be measured and the human observer that needs to be informed. For any given system, certain elements in that chain are identifiable. For example, consider the climate control for a large building.

This system will likely have numerous sensors measuring parameters such as temperature and humidity. Each sensor must ultimately produce a voltage signal that is measured by an analog-to-digital converter and placed on a data bus. The data bus then alters the digital attributes in the controller, which processes the data and displays the results on a screen, allowing an attendant to be informed and respond accordingly. The controller also influences a heater that adjusts the air temperature. Notice that the roles of subject and observer are continuously shifting as we progress along the chain. Each observer becomes a subject for the next observer in this sequence. Depending on the segment of the chain we control, we will need to make decisions regarding the modifications, physical phenomena, and observers that facilitate the functions. In some instances, we may oversee the entire chain, while in others, our control may be limited to a single link. The key point is that for every measurement system, there are established elements that must be interconnected. This differs from useful functions, where only the final result of the product is required.

The system we have presented is an extreme case, but it also illustrates that there is generally a series of transformations that must occur between the main subject we are attempting to measure and the observer or observers. Each transformation comes with its own challenges. We would prefer to have as few transformations as necessary to complete the task. Ideally, we would like the need to measure the air temperature to be eliminated entirely. If there were only one temperature to gauge, it would be more optimal for the air to communicate directly with the attendant. As mentioned, in a lengthy series of transformations, each observer becomes the subject for the subsequent measurement transformation within the system.

In the following sections, we will delve into how functions in the measurement chain are idealized. The sequence differs from that used in idealizing useful functions, even though measurement and detection also constitute a type of useful function.

The Ideal Final Observer—Doesn’t Need to Know

Identify the Ideal Final Observer

Method:

Step 1: Identify the “required” observer and the necessary subject that must be measured or detected. If the system is technical, you may need to determine where you have control over the system and where you do not.

Step 2: Why does the observer need to be informed? Trace this reasoning back through the causal relationships. If a Causal Analysis Diagram is being used, it is easier to follow the chain of reasoning back to the problems that the measurement function helps to resolve. At this point, we are seeking a reason that pertains to the observer. What characteristics of the observer make this function essential?

Step 3: A change to an object in the system (often the observer) eliminates the necessity for the observer to be informed.

Explanation

Up to this point, we have assumed that the observer is a necessary system object. We must not take this for granted. If we have any control over the system, we should question the necessity of the observer. The ideal final observer is one that does not require measurement to take place. Measurement imposes many burdens on the system. Sensors offer auxiliary functions to systems that do not directly alter the system product. Consequently, they tend to have lower functional ranking or value within the system. Paradoxically, sensors are often among the most costly components in the system. If the need for measurement can be eliminated, we can usually remove many system elements.

Is there something about the observer that renders measurement or detection unnecessary? Why does the observer desire to know the attributes of the measured object? The answer can be disheartening. This is particularly true in human systems. Consider the example of an obsessive employer wanting to monitor their employees. While this may appear extreme, it offers a valuable perspective on the situation. To achieve this outcome, a slight modification of the product is generally required.

The Ideal Subject--Doesn't Require Observation

Explanation of the Ideal Subject--Doesn't Require Observation

The Ideal Subject Doesn’t Require Measurement
There is something about the subject that makes measurement or detection unnecessary. As mentioned earlier, there are usually many burdens associated with measurement. The typical measurement system comprises many interlinked elements that trace their way back to the observer. If measurement is not required, then we can eliminate many components of the system.

The Ideal Subject Comes in Natural Groups
If we have determined that measurement is necessary, then the most ideal subject is a group. If the group is a natural one, then it is even more ideal. Many subjects exist in natural groups. If we can perform the function on all of them, preferably simultaneously, then this can simplify the system.

Measuring and detecting objects may not be necessary if the objects to be measured are not needed in the first place. If we can find a way to disregard the subject, there is no need to measure them.

Method: Measurement Not Required

Method:

Step 1: Why is the subject being measured? Is detection or measurement needed in preparation for fixing, preventing, or addressing something? Follow this reasoning through the causal relationships. If a Causal Analysis Diagram is being utilized, it is easier to trace the chain of reasoning back to the problems that the measurement function helps to address. (Keep in mind that this is typically done by considering the existence of elements).

Step 2: A change to an object in the system (often the object that we are serving) eliminates the need for the main function and consequently the objects that provide that function. In other words, if something performed its task more effectively, our system would not be necessary. What modification to the subject or other element in the system would render measurement unnecessary?

Explanation

There is something about the subject that makes measurement or detection superfluous.[2] All measurement functions can be viewed in a remedial or preventative context. This may not seem intuitive at first, but consider the following: Why do we measure the temperature of air in a room? It is because the temperature often strays from the comfortable range. It is not fulfilling its function! If it were doing its job, the air would consistently remain at the correct temperature without external intervention. While this perspective may seem extreme, it is nonetheless a valuable way to examine a situation from a different angle. To achieve this result, a modification of some object in the system is often necessary.

Example—Vacuum Crucible

The temperature of a crucible in a vacuum furnace is continuously monitored.

Step 1: Why is the subject being measured? Is detection or measurement required in preparation for fixing, preventing, or counteracting something? Follow this reasoning back through the causal relationships. If a Causal Analysis Diagram is being utilized, it becomes easier to trace the chain of reasoning back to the issues that the measurement function helps to address. (Remember that this is usually done by considering the existence of elements).

The temperature is measured to ensure that the operator knows when the crucible is about to melt.

Step 2: A change to an object in the system (often the object that we are serving) eliminates the need for the main function and therefore the objects that provide the function. In other words, if something were to perform its job more effectively, our system would no longer be necessary. What modification to the subject or other elements in the system would render measurement unnecessary?

The crucible is made of a material with a high enough melting temperature to prevent melting. Therefore, temperature measurement is no longer necessary.

Example—Measuring Job Performance

Step 1: Why is the subject being measured? Is detection or measurement required in preparation for fixing, preventing, or countering something? Follow this reasoning back through the causal relationships. If a Causal Analysis Diagram is used, it is easier to trace the chain of reasoning back to the problems that the measurement function helps to resolve. (Remember that this is usually done by considering the existence of elements).

Measurement of job performance is “required” because workers do not always perform in a manner that is “best” for the company. This is a remedial function. Additionally, it is “required” so that the company may know how to compensate the employee. This is also a preventative action to keep the employee from leaving. Both remedial and preventative functions are prime candidates for removal. By taking it for granted that these remedial or preventative actions are necessary, companies spend a significant amount of time and money on this process.

Step 2: A change to an object in the system (often the object that we are serving) removes the necessity for the main function and thus the objects that provide the function. In other words, if something performed its job better, our system wouldn’t be needed. What modification to the subject or another element in the system would make it so that measurement is not required?

In this case, we might consider modifying the system of how the company “contracts” with the employee or allowing employees to identify areas where they could better serve the company with their particular talents. It may be possible to hire employees who have already proven themselves capable of performing well without being monitored. In some highly developed countries, salary increases are automatic and dependent upon competitive pay for that position.

Method: Non-Existent Subject

Method

Step 1: Is the subject ever Harmful or Waste?

Step 2: Eliminate the Subject.

Step 3: Eliminate the Source.

Step 4: Eliminate the Path.

Step 5: The Waste becomes useful and is thus eliminated by its usefulness.

Explanation:

The ideal subject may not require measurement. There are various reasons why measurement might not be necessary. If the element is not needed in the system or does not even exist, then there is no need for measurement.

Example—Nuclear Waste

Nuclear waste and its storage medium must be monitored.

Step 1: Is the subject ever harmful waste? Yes

Step 2: Eliminate subject. No method found

Step 3: Eliminate source. No method found

Step 4: Eliminate path. No method found

Step 5: The waste becomes useful and is thus eliminated by its usefulness.

The nuclear waste becomes a pre-heater. As the pre-heater increases, the primary reactor material is diminished.

Method: Direct Acting Sensors

Method:

Step 1: Identify the fields associated with the parameter of the subject that is being sensed.

Step 2: Identify a physical phenomenon that uses this same field for sensing and actuation and reacts to the change in the parameter we are trying to measure.

Step 3: Identify the critical point of the physical phenomena at which small changes in input cause large changes in output (or large changes in input create small changes in output). Move this critical point to the desired control point. Now, small changes in input will cause large changes in output.

Step 4: Determine how crossing this critical point can be utilized for both sensing and control.

Explanation

The highest form of control is passive control. Systems ideally utilize one field for operation and control. Consider consolidating the sensing, control, and actuating elements into a single element that performs all of these functions. This means that the substances involved are capable of sensing a field and then using the field to generate muscle force to actuate. Fields that actuate and signal are generally located towards the middle of the Table of Fields (Appendix: Thermal, magnetic, vibration, etc).

The system typically operates close to triggering a critical point. For reference, here are some examples of critical points: A critical point is a region of operation where the properties of an object change abruptly. Most physical phenomena can be tailored to operate around a critical point. The efficiency of system operation can be enhanced by functioning near critical points.^[3] This often involves the use of phase transitions^[4]. The boiling or melting points of a substance are examples of critical points.

For humans, the critical points are associated with human senses. Note that the table to the right contains human thresholds.

Operating near critical points allows for direct-acting elements. For passive control^[5] ^[6], we require that the sensor utilize the same fields for sensing and modulation (the subject acts as a combined sensor and modulating element).

Example—Fluid Temperature Feedback

Consider a control system that measures the temperature of a fluid and then actuates a fluid closure element.

Step 1: Identify the fields associated with the parameter of the subject that is being sensed.

The area is a thermal zone

Step 2: Identify a physical phenomenon that uses this same field for sensing and actuation and reacts to the parameter change we aim to measure.

Expansion during Phase Change

Step 3: Identify the critical point of the physical phenomenon at which small changes in input result in large changes in output (or large changes in input result in small changes in output). Shift this critical point to the desired control point. Now, small changes in input will produce large changes in output.

Melting Point

Step 4: Identify how crossing this critical point can be utilized to both sense and control.

Expansion upon melting provides the necessary force to move the closure element.

Example—Greenhouse Temperature Control

Consider the example of a cooling system for a greenhouse. The use of passive control will invariably lead to fewer parts. The existing system employs a sensor, controller, and actuator to open the window when necessary.

Step 1: Identify the fields associated with the parameter of the subject being sensed.

A temperature field.

Step 2: Identify a physical phenomenon that utilizes this same field for sensing and actuation and reacts to the parameter change we aim to measure.

We want the window to open automatically when needed. With a bi-metal actuator (two metals with different thermal coefficients of expansion), we still utilize the same field (heat) to directly open the window.

Step 3: Identify the critical point of the physical phenomenon at which small changes in input cause large changes in output (or large changes in input create small changes in output). Shift this critical point to the desired control point. Now, small changes in input will cause large changes in output.

In this case, there is no intrinsic “critical point” such as the boiling point or the Curie point. We need to create a critical point by establishing a spring preload in the bi-metallic strip. Typically, the bi-metal strip presses firmly against the window, keeping it closed.

Step 4: Determine how crossing this critical point can be utilized for both sensing and control.

When the temperature rises sufficiently to release the preload, the window begins to open. This pretension in the spring can be adjusted to create a critical point.

Now we have a system that is more reliable, has fewer components, and is less expensive.

Method: Subject Comes Pre-Measured

Method

Step 1: For substances, determine a way to ensure the substance is pre-measured.

Step 2: For field measurements, arrange for the sources of the fields to be in discrete forms.

Explanation

The Subject does not require detection because the detection is already incorporated. Can the subject be apportioned in such a way that the required properties are already known or pre-measured? This principle is an extension of the concept of Prior Action^[7], where the process of measuring and utilizing the measured substance or field is divided into the measurement phase and the action phase, with the measurement conducted prior to its necessity.

Examples—Substances and Fields

Step 1: For substances, identify a method to make the substance pre-measured.

Medication—Pills

Food—Packets

Tubes—Pre-fabricated diameters (highly accurate)

Step 2: For the measurement of fields, ensure the sources of the fields come in discrete forms.

Following are several examples.

Sound or Vibration—Set frequencies (resonance) and duration

Light—Set frequencies and duration

Buoyancy—Discrete volumes

Pressure—Saturated liquid-gas phase results in one pressure

Temperature—Saturated liquid-gas phase releases pressure

Current—Use of a current driver

Example—Detection of Astronomical Phenomena

Step 1: For substances, identify a method to make the substance pre-measured.

Not applicable since this pertains to the measurement of fields.

Step 2: For measurement of fields, ensure that the sources of the fields are presented in discrete forms.

Astronomical objects emit a range of light frequencies. These frequencies can often be separated into specific frequency “bands” using optical gratings. High-quality detectors can sense a variety of frequencies, but extensive sections of the sky need to be surveyed. How can these frequencies be pre-measured? By using an optical filter, the light can be filtered to particular frequencies that appear as anomalies or can be detected discretely with an alarm.

Method: Detect or Measure the Minimum Part

Method:

Step 1: If the subject is a single element, what minimum component must be detected?

Step 2: If the subject consists of multiple elements, identify parts of the system that can be measured, instead of measuring the entire system.

Explanation

Detecting or measuring a parameter of a system composed of various elements allows for the possibility of simplification by measuring the parameters for only part of the system. It is natural to directly measure the properties of the individual elements. An alternative method is to measure the properties of the constituents or derivatives of the constituents to determine the properties of the whole system.

Example—Bicycle Speedometer

How can the speed of a bicycle be determined?

Step 1: If the subject is a single element, what is the minimum part of the subject that must be detected?

Detect the revolution of part of the wheel instead of the whole bicycle.

Step 2: If the subject consists of multiple elements, identify the components of the system that can be measured, rather than measuring the entire system.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

How can we detect and quantify the corrosion of metallic samples?

Step 1: If the subject is a single element, what is the minimum part of the subject that must be detected?

Given that we know the base materials and the acids involved, we likely have a list of corrosion byproducts. It may be feasible to detect only certain byproducts. For instance, if one of the potential corrosion products is iron oxide, we might focus on measuring the oxygen in the sample. There are established methods to detect chemical compounds on the surface of objects that target specific constituents.

Step 2: If the subject consists of multiple elements, identify the components of the system that can be measured, rather than measuring the entire system.

Method: Multiple Subject Elements

Method

Step 1: Do the subjects that require the same measurement come in natural batches or groups? Do they arrive in large groups or in groups that are difficult to separate? The subjects may be identical, similar in some aspects, or completely different. The key question is whether they necessitate the same measurement.

Step 2: Is it more ideal (or easier) to detect the group simultaneously? For instance, is it advantageous to know the average value instead of individual measurement values? Measuring the subjects as a group simplifies the process and provides an average value, which may be more beneficial in certain situations.

Explanation

The basis for this tool stems from the standards involving multiple system elements.^[8] ^[9] ^[10]^[11] However, there is a twist to the idea. Simply increasing the number of subject elements that are measured or detected is certainly an improvement over performing the functions on single product elements, but it is even more advantageous when the subjects appear in natural groupings. Such groupings are often determined by nature or commonly accepted manufacturing conditions.

In the case of multiple and identical subject elements, it is often more ideal or easier to detect the average parameters of many objects than to detect the properties of a single object.^[12] This is almost always true when detecting the properties of small entities such as particles, molecules, and atoms. This is particularly true if the subjects occur in natural groupings. In this scenario, we treat all of the objects being measured and focus primarily on the statistics of the group.

In the case of biased subjects, it may be more beneficial to measure a natural group of these all at once.

For completely different subjects that occur in natural groupings, it may be more advantageous to measure them all together.

Example—Measuring the Temperature of an Insect

Understanding the metabolic rate of insects is desirable. To achieve this, we would like to measure their temperature in comparison to the ambient environment.

Step 1: Do the subjects requiring the same measurement exist in natural batches or groups? Do they come in large groups or in configurations that are difficult to separate? The subjects may be identical, similar in certain aspects, or completely different. The crucial question is whether they require the same measurement.

While insects do not appear in natural groups but rather in arbitrary swarms, they are small, making them difficult to separate. This renders the situation a likely candidate for measuring in groups.

Step 2: Is it more ideal (or easier) to detect the group simultaneously? For instance, is it beneficial to know the average value instead of individual measurement values? Measuring the subjects as a group simplifies the process and provides an average value that may be more advantageous in some situations.

In this instance, measuring the average temperature of a swarm is more advantageous.

Example—Measurement of Glass Thickness

Consider the measurement of the thickness of each piece of glass in a stack. The glass to be measured has a variety of thicknesses within a narrow range.

Step 1: Do the subjects that need the same measurement come in natural batches or groups? Do they come in large groups or in clusters that are hard to separate? The subjects may be identical, similar in some aspect, or completely different. The important question is whether they require the same measurement.

The glass is presented as a stack of plates that have a slight variation in thickness. For our application, the variety of thicknesses is detrimental.

Step 2: Is it more ideal (or easier) to detect the group simultaneously? For instance, is it advantageous to know the average value rather than individual measurement values? Measuring the subjects as a group simplifies the process and yields an average value, which may be more ideal in certain situations.

The net thickness, along with the number of sheets, will help us understand whether the individual plates exhibit a wide variation.

Example—Weighing Fruits and Vegetables

Consider the automatic checkout of fruits and vegetables in a grocery store. Each fruit and vegetable has a range of weights. However, the speed of weighing and assigning costs must be accomplished quickly.

Step 1: Do the subjects that require the same measurement come in natural batches or groups? Do they arrive in large groups or in clusters that are difficult to separate? The subjects may be identical, similar in some respects, or completely different. The essential question is whether they necessitate the same measurement.

The fruits and vegetables come in natural groups, but they are quite different from one another. However, they all require the same measurement of weight.

An automatic checkout would be greatly enhanced if it could detect the presence of a wide variety of items simultaneously.

The Ideal Measurement (If Required)

Explanation of the Ideal Measurement

Set the Standard for How Well the Modification Must Be Executed
We previously asked ourselves, in the section on idealizing useful functions, what the optimal level of the function was. If I could snap my fingers and make things magically happen, how much do I want to modify or control the subject? Here we pose a similar question. If I could snap my fingers, how would I like the function to be performed? How well, how long, etc.? It is important to note that insights derived at this stage have the potential to influence one another. Consequently, the tools in this section may not be followed in a linear fashion. It may be necessary to jump back and forth between tools. Conclusions reached during one activity may be challenged by insights gained in other activities.

Method: Describe the Measurement in a Variety of Ways

Method

Step 1: Identify the subject and its attribute that is being measured.

Step 2: Identify the “observer.” This may be a human or system that collects information for logging or control.

Step 3: Begin with the assumption that the modification will occur directly between the subject being measured and the observer. If this is not possible, we will revisit it later to allow for another transformation to occur.

Step 4: Consider the observer. What attribute do we want to change in the observer? If the observer is human, we need to select a sense that we want to influence. If the observer is a device, then we must decide which attributes of the device we would like to change (voltage, current, etc.).

Step 5: Work backward by imagining several ideal final states. Using the longhand form of the modification, think of different ways to describe the modification. Consider moving from the macro world to the micro world (atomic level and beyond).

Explanation

According to the laws of system evolution, we seek detection with as few energy transformations as possible. Often, there is a multi-step process that occurs between the subject and the observer. The subject being measured changes one thing, which then changes another, and so on, until it informs the user. After concentrating on the ideal observer and ideal subject, we turn our attention to the ideal modification. We ask: What do we truly want to happen, and what are the attributes of the ideal informing? While informing functions are beneficial, the ideal modification for these functions (measurement and detection) must be regarded differently than practical functions. Since both the subject being measured and the observer are known, this can create confusion. What does it mean to inform ideally? We are preparing to think differently about the measurement.

Now, how do we describe this in the most ideal way possible? We would like as few transformations as possible. What are the ideal final results? In some cases, the most ideal measurement is that the observer merely “looks” (smells, feels, or hears) and all necessary information is transferred. In another situation requiring control, the observer may be a system that detects a voltage. The ideal in this case is that the change in the subject being measured directly alters the voltage of the system.

It is insufficient to describe this in just one way. Each method may lead to a distinct physical phenomenon to accomplish the function (depending on the availability of system resources).

What would I wish for if I could magically achieve it with a snap of my fingers?

Example—Detecting Fan Speed

Step 1: Identify the subject and its attribute that is being measured.

The subject being measured is the fan and its rotational speed.

Step 2: Identify the “observer.” This may be a human or system that collects information for logging or control.

The observer is a human observer.

Step 3: Begin with the assumption that the modification will occur directly between the subject being measured and the observer. If this is not possible, we will return and allow another transformation to occur.

The fan must directly inform the user of its speed.

Step 4: Consider the observer. What attribute do we want to change in the observer? If the observer is human, we need to choose a sense that we want to affect. If the observer is a device, then we need to determine which device attributes we would like to change (voltage, current, etc.).

In this case, the attribute that I want to change is the sense of hearing.

Step 5: Work backward by imagining several ideal final states. Using the longhand form of the modification, consider different ways to describe the modification. Consider moving from the macro world to the micro world (atomic level and beyond).

In this scenario, the human directly hears the fan and determines its speed by detecting and interpreting the audible sounds produced by the fan.

Example—Detecting Corrosion

Step 1: Identify the subject and its attribute that is being measured.

The subject is the corrosion and its level.

Step 2: Identify the “observer.” This may be a human or a system that collects information for logging or control.

The observer is a voltage-sensing device.

Step 3: Begin with the assumption that the modification will occur directly between the subject being measured and the observer. If this is not feasible, we will revisit and allow another transformation to take place.

The corrosion directly informs the observer, which is a voltage measurement device. We aim for as few transformations as possible to achieve this voltage measurement. As we shall see, some methods for measuring corrosion can yield a current that directly provides a voltage.

Step 4: Consider the observer. What attribute do we want to change in the observer? If the observer is human, we need to choose a sense that we want to influence. If the observer is a device, we must decide which device attributes we would like to alter (voltage, current, etc.).

We want to directly affect the voltage.

Method: Accuracy

Method

Step 1: If I could snap my fingers, what would the ideal level of informing be? What is the ideal level of accuracy?

Explanation

Determine the actual level of ideal informing. This level typically involves a metric. As we begin to adjust the informing levels, we start to chip away at psychological inertia. We gain insights.

Example—Detecting Corrosion

Step 1: If I could snap my fingers, what would the ideal level of informing be? What is the ideal level of accuracy?

The unit of measurement is likely the mass of corrosion per mass of base material per unit of time. For example, grams of rust per grams of iron per hour. The accuracy should probably be expressed as a percentage. For instance, the rust is 2 grams per 100 grams of iron per hour +/- 3% of the 2 grams measured. Notice that this requirement makes it significantly more challenging for the corrosion to directly inform the observer, as the human ability to discern small changes is limited. We may need to revisit this and consider a more indirect measure later.

Method: Ideal Sequence of Measurement

Method

Step 1: Create a process map of the sequence of functions. Informing functions appear as blocks in the process map. It is preferable, though not absolutely necessary, to use functional language.

Step 2: Consider performing the informing function in different sequences. Move it earlier or later than it is currently performed. Try moving it so far forward that it is no longer during the normal process sequence. Consider moving it so far backward that it is no longer part of the ordinary sequence.

Step 3: Can the function be performed in parallel with other functions?

Step 4: If necessary, break down sections of the map into more detailed parts.

Step 5: Can the modification be divided into two (or more) stages? Does this enable parallel processes to accomplish the main function, or does it allow for a more optimal sequencing of functions?

Explanation

This method is based on considerations of harmonizing functions^[13] or actions within a system.

The law of harmonizing the rhythms of the components of the system: An essential condition for the living viability, in principle, of a technical system is the harmonization of the rhythms (frequencies of vibration, periodicity) of all parts of the system.

Considering the ideal sequence will continue to provide us with deeper insights into the ideal informing. A powerful method for exploring this is the process map. This can be accomplished in various ways, including a storyboard or simply through words in sequence. However it is done, it is beneficial to illustrate the possibility of functions being performed in parallel, as this will be one of the considerations we take into account.

Method: Duration of Measurement

Method

Step 1: If the informing modification were performed very quickly, would other harmful functions be prevented?

Step 2: How much time do we have after it is normally performed, during which it is permissible to continue performing the function? If the modification were executed very slowly (hours, days, weeks, months, years), would this be detrimental, or could it actually enhance the performance of other functions?

Explanation

The ideal sequence is heavily influenced by the duration of the function. Similarly, the duration of the function is significantly impacted by the sequence of the function.

Method: Duty Cycle of Measurement

Method

Step 1: Are there opportunities for the system to operate continuously? Is this even desirable given the current subject? Ideally, the objects in the system will be at full capacity.

Step 2: Are there other objects in the job that require the same informing function? Should the informing function be restructured to consider these other objects?

Step 3: Should the informing modification be implemented along the entire path, both inbound and outbound? This typically applies to machines that have repetitive motions. Should dummy runs and downtimes be permitted?

Explanation

Ideality requires that all objects perform as many functions as possible, for as much of the time as possible. Systems that are idle utilize valuable resources without performing any tasks. Consequently, it is crucial to consider idealizing the function by ensuring the system operates continuously^[14].

Example—Measuring Corrosion

Step 1: Are there opportunities for the system to operate continuously? Is this even desirable in the context of the current task? Ideally, objects in the system should operate at full capacity.

The ideal duty cycle is for the measurement to progress from one cube to the next without delay.

Step 2: Are there other objects in the job that require the same informing function? Should the informing function be restructured to consider these other objects?

This is not necessary.

Method: Adjustability and Continuity of Adjustment

Method

Step 1: Consider different and perhaps extreme operating environments. Decide whether the informing function must be capable of adapting to these various environments.

Step 2: Evaluate adjustability to a variety of measured objects. How much variation can we accommodate? Consider biased objects (items that are of the same type but differ in an important attribute, such as nails of varying sizes or roses of different shades). Also, consider objects with much greater differences, like the range of edible plants.

Step 3: What level of granularity of adjustment is necessary? Can the adjustment be discrete? If so, what is the discrete step size?

Step 5: Does the adjustment need to be continuous, or should it require continuous feedback?

Explanation

Lines of evolution suggest that the control of functions becomes progressively more adjustable^[15]. Initially, the process is fixed. Subsequently, it becomes adjustable to discrete levels at the very least. Following that, the adjustment must be continuous. Ultimately, some form of control scheme is employed to adjust the function for varying conditions. The most basic form of control often toggles the function on or off, a method commonly referred to as “bang-bang” control. The next form of control is termed open-loop control, meaning that a change is detected somewhere, prompting the mechanism managing the function to receive a set command, thereby placing the output within the desired range. The subsequent level of control employs feedback^[16] that continuously or discretely regulates the function. Each level of adjustment and control adds to the complexity of the system. It is crucial here not to excessively impose an ideal level of adjustability. Over-constraining the system can be counterproductive. While this may sound like a compromise, we will only consider an acceptable level of adjustment that enables this system to function effectively over a long period without requiring changes.

Method: Exclusion

Method

Step 1: Identify instances when informing functions are detrimental.

Step 2: Consider providing a zero function and methods for detecting and managing the informing function during these instances.

Explanation

The Zero Function^[17] is the deliberate absence of a function under specific conditions. We should maintain complete control over the function when its existence could be dangerous or otherwise detrimental.

Time to Change the Observation Phenomena?

Explanation of Time to Change the Phenomena?

Explanation

Once we know the measurements to deliver, we are prepared to discuss how we will deliver the measurement. Informing functions must be treated somewhat differently than other useful functions. The measurement subject (tool) modifies the observer (product). This modification occurs through the use of a physical phenomenon that makes the measured parameter of the subject detectable and ultimately measurable.

A Definition of Physical Phenomena
The term “physical phenomenon” is an abstract concept created by humans to describe fields and substances organized in specific architectures that perform recognizable actions. As a human abstract, there will inevitably be ambiguities related to this definition. Fortunately, most people generally understand and relate to the term phenomena. The study of physics primarily focuses on physical phenomena. This is advantageous because it helps users comprehend what phenomena can be utilized and how to calculate the effects of the associated parameters. For the purposes of this book, we will broaden this definition to include “scientific effects,” a common term in the TRIZ field.

In the well-known TRIZ approach of substance-field analysis, one of the key components of any interaction triad is a field. This can lead us to mistakenly believe that all interactions result from single fields. When we broaden our perspective on how functions are delivered by considering physical phenomena, we realize that many interactions result from combinations of fields. It is common for more than one field to be involved in a physical phenomenon. Consequently, we will replace the concept of fields delivering functions with phenomena delivering functions.

Evolutionary History
To decide whether to switch to a new phenomenon, we need to investigate the evolutionary history of the function in question. What phenomena have been used, and what improvements have occurred over time? This can be achieved by examining existing products, patents, phenomena from competing products, the evolution of field phenomena, and physical phenomena from disruptive technologies.

Competitive alternatives encompass any systems that can potentially compete with the system you are simplifying or creating. A newspaper competes with television. Truck transportation competes with airline travel. We will consider phenomena associated with these alternatives.

Disruptive technologies are often associated with products or services utilizing physical phenomena developed for other markets. When these products or services start drawing away your customers, it is referred to as disruptive technologies. Transitioning to this new technology can be significantly disruptive to our own business as well as to other competitors.

The Decision to Change to a New Phenomenon
Once we understand the evolutionary history, we are prepared to determine whether the time is right to transition to a new physical phenomenon.

The decision regarding whether or not to change to a new physical phenomenon is frequently overlooked or taken for granted. The typical action is to continue using the familiar phenomenon. When we overlook or take for granted, we are making assumptions and thus subject to psychological inertia. We may not recognize that there are more ideal physical phenomena that could be used to deliver our modifications to the tool. We may be ignoring free resources available in the environment or in the job that could simplify the system.

Conversely, new physical phenomena can lead to numerous challenges. When transitioning to a new physical phenomenon, many new “unknowns” arise. (You might be fortunate if you have prior experience with the new phenomenon, as this makes the transition to it much easier.) Remember that the new product or service must compete with one that has been refined over many years. The standard is quite high. If it is not the right time to change, then there is no need to seek potential physical phenomena further.

Method: Search for Existing Offerings

Method

Step 1: Observe what the target market currently does to satisfy this function. If possible, observe before speaking. By watching, you get to the truth. What people do and what they say they do are often two different things.

Step 2: Inquire how they satisfy this function and what they would do if they didn’t have what they currently use. This may provide valuable insights into the history of the function. They will often share what they did “way back when.”

Step 3: Identify what “extreme users” currently do to satisfy this function and what they would do without their current means. Extreme users often have a range of experiences with uncommon ways to meet a function.

Step 4: Ask everyone you interview where they source the items and tools needed to perform these jobs. This will prepare you for the next step.

Explanation

This aligns with examining the history. As a last resort, what have people used to perform this function if they don’t have more expensive means of measurement? The competitive alternative is what people currently utilize and what they would turn to if they didn’t have their current solution. Remember, this is not necessarily what you might consider to be “the competition.” For a pet watering bowl, the competitive alternative could be a large bucket. In its early stages, Southwest Airlines did not compete against other airlines; they were competing with travel by car.

It is very tempting to rely on personal experience to answer this question, but this can be misleading. Many problem solvers and inventors go astray by assuming they are similar to everyone else. There is wisdom in going to the front lines to see how the situation is truly being handled. There is no substitute for this. Don’t be satisfied with talking to just a few people.

Method: Patent and Literature Search

Method

Step 1: From patents and literature, study the history of the functions that are typically involved in the job. What functions have been added over time? What main physical parameters have improved?

Step 2: From patents and literature, study the history of the technologies (physical phenomena) that typically deliver these functions. How have these technologies changed? What physical phenomena and scientific effects have been used to deliver the functions?

Step 3: Summarize the history.

Explanation

Understanding the history^[1] of a system is essential to grasping the main evolutionary trends. Each system has a primary evolutionary trajectory. The tendency of a system to stagnate along this evolutionary path is largely influenced by the technical problems that directly conflict with this evolutionary direction. Since you have already conducted a patent search within your industry, you possess a wealth of information about its history. This step may require time, but the insights gained are immensely valuable for subsequent phases. The inventor is becoming a true expert in this domain.

Example—Measurement of Corrosion

Step 1: From patents and literature, study the history of the technologies (physical phenomena) employed for detection. How have these technologies evolved? What physical phenomena and scientific effects have been harnessed to deliver the functions?

From http://www.corrosion-club.com/historyelectrochem.htm Electrochemical Corrosion Monitoring – Historical Items: 1942 Hickling – Potentiostat: The term “potentiostat” was introduced by A. Hickling, who also designed this historical electronic model. An article on the website www.bio-logic.fr further credits Hickling with the invention of the three-electrode potentiostat (enabling automatic control of the cell potential) – a “genius idea” still in use today. Potentiostats became widely adopted as laboratory corrosion measurement instruments in the 1960s. Source: H.S. Isaacs: “Aspects of Corrosion from the ECS Publications”, Journal of the Electrochemical Society, Vol. 149, No. 12, pp. S85-S87, 2002. (An ECS Centennial Series Article). 1957 M. Stern and A.L. Geary: Measurement of general corrosion rate by the inverse of polarization resistance, from potential and current measurements near the free corrosion potential. This method became widely utilized in d.c. electrochemical corrosion monitoring instruments. 1960s Epelboin: Development of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), a.c. corrosion measurement tools. 1968: Warren P. Iverson—Measurement of voltage transients (fluctuations) in corroding metals and alloys. “…he (Warren Iverson) published a brief article in the Journal of the Electrochemical Society that many still reference as the first paper on electrochemical noise…” Source: F. Huet, A. Bautista, and U. Bertocci: “Listening to Corrosion”, The Electrochemical Society Interface, Winter 2001, pp. 40-43.
1956—US2947679—corrosion rate is determined by the correlation between the corrosion current and the current necessary to lower the relative potential of the corroded metal a specific amount. Notably, instead of measuring the extent of corrosion, this method assesses the corrosion rate, providing an instantaneous measurement that could accelerate the corrosion measurement process for our example. The method is straightforward and allows for a nearly direct voltage measurement.
1956—US2856495—To assess the corrosion of pipes without disassembly, the resistance of a wire inside the pipe is measured. The metal wire represents the pipe’s material and is elongated and thin to maximize the change in resistance due to corrosion. This concept could also apply to our example if the capsules were to transform from capsules into very long and thin wires that would quickly register resistance changes when exposed to the acid.
1959—US3069332—Direct measurement of the corrosion current. This relates to US2947679 mentioned above. It provides a faster way to capture a voltage representing the corrosion current.
1964—US3337440—Similar to US2947679 but discusses measuring the corrosion current when in contact with jet fuel, etc.
1965—US3684679—Similar to US2947679.
1966—US3449232—Similar to US2947679 but offers a means of measuring the current in scenarios where corrosion is induced by a droplet of water in an oxygen-rich environment. The cathode forms at the interface between the droplet, the oxygen, and the corroded metal.
1966—US3539808—Irradiate a sample with beta nuclear radiation and then measure backscatter to correlate thickness with corrosion. This measurement requires several transformations to obtain voltage.
1970—US3609549—Similar to US2856495, where corrosion is indirectly measured by observing changes in resistance. This invention addresses the issue of heating the specimen during the resistance measurement process.
1971—US3748247—Similar to the 1956 patent US2947679. This invention aims to create a convenient probe.
1972—US3821641—Introduces oscillating current probes and a balancing circuit to maintain constant current amplitudes. The means to keep the current amplitude consistent is then measured to derive the corrosion rate.
1974—US3947329—Similar to the 1956 patent US2947679 but extends the method to account for high rates of corrosion by enforcing electrical conditions for short durations and subsequently observing the system’s response.
1977—US4130464—This represents a fundamentally new method that measures the decay rate of the potential of the electric double layer. A charge is driven into the electric double layer and the potential decreases due to corrosion.
1979—US4238298—Applies alternating currents between test plates and measures the alternating current impedance. The corrosion rate is a function of the alternating current impedance.
1983—US575678—The corrosion rate is measured by detecting low-frequency noise voltage between two electrodes immersed in a corrosive environment. The voltage is averaged to determine the corrosion rate.
1987—US4800165—Essentially the same as US4238298 when applied to large structures in a corrosive environment.
1987—US4758312—An electrochemically active material is introduced into the corrosive liquid environment with a reduction potential more positive than the corroded material. The material is removed from the environment after the reaction and analyzed. The resulting analysis correlates with the actual corrosion of the material.
1990—US4006786—Essentially similar to US4238298, except that impedance is measured at several fixed frequencies, and the correlated impedance is linked to the corrosion rate.
1993—US5519330—Introduces pulsing instead of varying frequencies. The pulses have different amplitudes. A corresponding current is measured and correlated to the corrosion rate.
1998—US6132594—Similar to many other methods measuring voltages associated with corrosion, it acknowledges that localized corrosion can frequently occur. To address this, the corroded surface is segmented, allowing for multiple measurements.
1999—US6275050 detects corrosion by injecting a signal into a junction and subsequently detecting 3^rd Harmonics. This is interesting but not related to our issue, as we are not concerned with junction measurement.
1999—US5905376 detects corrosion using MRI.
2000—US5320395—Essentially the same as US4238298.
2000—US6556001—Similar to US4238298, but introduces a noisy signal that varies over time. The resulting current is analyzed over time and mathematically manipulated to derive the expected corrosion properties of the material.
2002—USH2127—Detects by pulse heating a surface and observing the phase of the response, which allows for corrosion detection beneath a coating.
2003—US7057177—This method employs infrared radiation reflected off a surface, measuring the amount absorbed. These two values correlate to establish the level of corrosion.
2003—US20030146749A1—Another innovative method that utilizes a magnetometer to assess the magnetic fields of corroded magnetic materials.
2005—US20050274628A1—Essentially similar to US6132594.
2005—US20050213430A1—A new technique. Scan the surface of an article to the micrometer level before corrosion and after corrosion. Measure the differences at each point and statistically evaluate the corrosion rate.
2006—US7388386—Utilizes a multitude of small plates of varying thickness. Each corrodes over time, breaking an electrical path.
2010—US20110067497A1—Employs ultrasound to measure sample thickness and ascertain the level of corrosion.

Step 3: Summarize the history.

It is important to note that not all cases necessitate the investigator to conduct a patent search. We are pursuing one in this instance because we are interested in developing new and innovative methods for measuring corrosion. Below is a summary of the findings:

Pre-1956: Weight loss coupons—This is the oldest method. It involves accurately weighing a sample (coupon) and placing it into the corrosive environment for a specified duration. After this period, the coupon is removed from the corrosive environment and cleaned of corrosion. The coupon is then re-weighed, and the corrosion rate is calculated based on the weight difference and the time spent in the corrosive environment. Weight loss coupons represent the type of system employed in the acid container issue.
1956: Electrical resistance—Some of the first patents involved inserting wires made of the materials to be tested into corrosive environments and measuring the resistance of these wires over time as the cross-section decreased due to corrosion.
1956: Linear polarization—This approach entails reversing the galvanic voltage and measuring the resulting currents. It was developed concurrently with measuring electrical resistance and galvanic current.
1959: Galvanic current—involves measuring the actual currents occurring in the corrosion process. These methods emerged around the same time as electrical resistance methods.
1966: Irradiate sample with beta nuclear radiation and measure backscatter to correlate thickness with corrosion.
1977: Measure the rate of decay of the potential of the electric double layer. A charge is introduced into the electric double layer, and the potential decreases as a result of corrosion.
1979: Apply alternating currents between test plates and assess the alternating current impedance. The corrosion rate is a function of the alternating current impedance.
1983: Measure the low-frequency noise voltage between two electrodes immersed in a corrosive environment. The voltage is averaged to yield the corrosion rate.
1999: Detect corrosion using MRI.
2003: Infrared radiation is reflected off a surface, and the amount absorbed is calculated. These two values are then correlated to ascertain the level of corrosion.
2003: Utilize a magnetometer to measure the magnetic fields of corroded magnetic materials.
2005: Scan a surface to the micrometer level before corrosion and again after corrosion. Measure the differences at each point and statistically evaluate the corrosion rate.
2006: Use numerous small plates of varying thickness. Each plate corrodes, breaking an electrical circuit.
2010: Employ ultrasound to gauge the thickness of the sample to determine the extent of corrosion.

All of these methods have enhanced precision and the capacity to operate across a wide range of conditions, as shown by the patents. Most of these approaches can be utilized to generate an instantaneous corrosion rate, although in some instances, the levels may require numerical differentiation to yield an instantaneous corrosion rate.

[1] The Innovation Algorithm by Genrich Altshuller, page 215—While Altshuller’s life was a study of the history of systems, this specific chapter presents the various stages of a technology. Altshuller aimed to take an existing system and ascertain the evolutionary history of that system.

Method: Identify Competiive Alternatives

Method

Step 1: Observe what the target market currently does to fulfill this function. If possible, observe before engaging in conversation. By watching, you uncover the truth. What people claim to do and what they actually do are often two different things.

Step 2: Inquire how they satisfy this function and what they would do if they didn’t have their current solutions. This may provide valuable insights into the history of the function. They may often share what they did “back in the day.”

Step 3: Identify what “extreme users” currently do to fulfill this function and what alternatives they would consider if they didn’t have their current methods. Extreme users frequently have a wide range of experiences with unconventional ways to meet a function.

Step 4: Ask each individual you interview where they source the items and tools they need to accomplish these tasks. This will prepare you for the next step.

Explanation

This aligns with examining the history. As a last resort, what have people used to perform this function if they lack more expensive methods of measurement? The competitive alternative is what people currently use and what they would turn to if they didn’t have their current solution. Keep in mind this is not necessarily what you might consider “the competition.” For a pet watering bowl, the competitive alternative might be a large bucket. In its early stages, Southwest Airlines did not compete with other airlines; they were up against travel by car.

It is very tempting to rely on personal experience to answer this question, but this can lead to pitfalls. Many problem solvers and inventors fall into the trap of assuming they are like everyone else. There is great value in observing the actual situation. There is no substitute for firsthand experience. Don’t settle for speaking with just a few individuals.

Method: Evolution of Field Phnomena

Method

Step 1: Which fields are currently being used to deliver this function?

Step 2: What are the next fields that are likely to be used?

Explanation

This is connected to examining the history because we are considering what we expect the phenomena to transition to if there is a change. We need to understand the history to make this transition.

Review the Table of Fields^[19] shown below. Note that the top fields are the most prevalent fields, while the bottom fields are typically the least prevalent. In general, systems tend to utilize the top fields first for functionality and then the lower fields for sensing and control.

Eventually, the lower fields may become more abundant. Since they are both plentiful and controllable, it makes sense for systems to evolve toward the lower fields.

By examining the fields currently utilized by your system or similar systems, you can predict the fields that may be used next. Standard Solutions include the replacement of poorly controlled fields with more easily managed fields. ^[20] The Inventive Principles suggest replacing mechanical systems ^[21] with systems that utilize non-mechanical fields.

Example—Measuring Corrosion

Step 1: What fields are currently being employed to perform this function?

So far, we have observed all field phenomena represented, ranging from using weight (reduction of coupon mass) to examining reflectance, which employs light.

Step 2: What are the next fields likely to be utilized?

The conclusion is to continue evolving the use of electromagnetic waves such as light, as there are no more advanced directions to pursue.

Method: Disruptive Technologies

Method

Are there products with different technologies that are lower in performance and reliability but offered at a lower price or are more convenient? Are these businesses viable, growing, and are they eroding the lower end of the markets that you normally serve? If the answer is “yes,” then you are likely dealing with disruptive technology.

Explanation

It is easy to mistakenly label any significant innovation as disruptive technology, but one must exercise caution in how this term is applied. Disruptive technologies^[22] are phenomena or scientific developments that have the potential to disrupt established businesses, particularly yours. These disruptive offerings typically originate in industries that are not your own but are adjacent to them.

Each market segment focuses on different competitive parameters regarding the products they utilize. Markets evolve from performance (speed, power, etc.) to reliability, then to convenience, and finally to price. Markets that prioritize performance and reliability seem perpetually dissatisfied and continue to demand higher levels of both. They also tend to offer higher margins, making them more attractive markets. The lower end is generally satisfied with existing performance and reliability and seeks convenience and lower prices. It is often possible to identify a disruptive technology because customers at the low end of the market begin purchasing competing products that offer greater convenience and lower prices. Typically, the incumbent business welcomes this development because these customers are generally more challenging to satisfy when it comes to price. The margins for these products are usually low, so they willingly shed these low-end customers. This decision seems innocuous since these low-end customers appear unimportant as you move up-market to achieve higher margins. Gradually, these offerings will improve in performance as they are supported by the cash flow into these markets, until you realize they are encroaching on your primary customer base. Often, by the time this realization occurs, the resources required to adapt are substantial. History has indicated that reproducing a disruptive technology at this stage is almost impossible. Vendors may be locked into agreements while supplying the new supply chain, and consumers typically exhibit loyalty to the early products. Abandoning the lower end market also accelerates the development of disruptive technology until its performance and reliability begin to encroach upon your main market segments. Eventually, these offerings might dominate the high-end market. The disruption is complete, and the incumbent is out of business.

Clayton Christensen coined the term “disruptive technologies” because transitioning to the new technology is profoundly disruptive to the incumbent business. For example, these technologies often do not deliver the margins you have come to expect. They do not integrate into your supply chain and do not fulfill the performance levels that your main customers have become accustomed to. They typically require new vendors, and often, a disruptive technology necessitates an entirely new business model. This is the most disruptive aspect of all. As management contemplates these technologies, they may reject them under the belief that they are acting in their company’s best interests. Remember, they may be constrained by their largest customers, leaving few resources for other customers and disruptive technologies. He also cautioned that businesses that believe they are engaging with disruptors should proceed with extreme caution, or they risk finding themselves out of business despite otherwise sound practices. If nobody desires your product, you are out of business.

Many fallen businesses have seen these disruptors on the horizon but were unable to respond effectively. The typical response is to attempt to force these disruptive technologies into existing markets, often with disastrous outcomes. The new phenomenon may not deliver the performance that the current market has come to expect, and the overall result tends to be too disruptive to maintain sustainability. Since adopting disruptive technology is profoundly disruptive, we will propose an alternative approach that is economically viable and generally allows the business to compete with the existing business model. The strategy involves transitioning to hybrid technology, where the benefits of both technologies combine to create a new and unique capability. This approach has stood the test of time, and studies of technical evolution indicate that moving toward hybrid technologies is a common method of transitioning to new physical phenomena. Utilizing hybrid technologies enables the company to progress along a new enhanced performance curve and grow into the disruptive technology. At a minimum, the incumbent business will continue to retain the mid and upper ends of the market. Since jumping to hybrid technologies is not part of this phase, we will discuss that later.

Example—Corrosion Rate Measurement

Are there products with varying technologies that are lower in performance and reliability but provided at a lower price or are more convenient? Are these businesses viable, growing, and are they eroding the lower end of the markets you typically serve? If the answer is “yes,” then you are likely facing disruptive technology.

The two primary markets requiring corrosion rate measurement appear to be corrosion testing services (which employ standardized testing) and structural corrosion monitoring (which encompasses bridges, deep-sea oil rigs, boats, and other structures that spend a significant percentage of their time exposed to moisture).

The standardized testing industry widely accepts weight-loss coupon testing to measure corrosion. In contrast, the structural corrosion monitoring market favors electrochemical methods, which are very fast and provide sufficient accuracy for corrosion monitoring.

The global demand for structural testing suggests that enhancements in electrochemical methods could lead to rapid technological evolution. Given the seemingly low acceptance of electrochemical testing for standard tests, all indicators point to electrochemical monitoring as a disruptive technology for coupon testing. Additionally, ASTM has organized symposia and presented peer-reviewed articles to promote its use for standardized testing. We may soon witness this technology rapidly gaining traction in the testing services markets.

Method: System Maturity From Patents

Method for Assessing System Maturity

Step 1: Identify the technical parameters related to the main function. Quantify how these parameters have improved over time.

Step 2: Determine how the level of invention has evolved. The level of invention is typically high when transitioning to a new physical phenomenon. It peaks again during periods of rapid growth when resources become available from sales. Later, it stabilizes as system resources are depleted.

The levels of invention are as follows:

——1. No resolution of contradiction

——2. Resolves contradictions with minor changes

——3. Resolves contradictions with significant changes. This utilizes technology from the same field.

——4. Complete change in physical phenomenon. This typically involves technology from another field.

——5. New Physical Phenomenon. Has the potential to alter the super-system to which it belongs.

Step 3: Quantify the number of patents filed each year.

Explanation

The maturity of systems can be determined through several methods. One such method involves studying patents^[23]. This entails understanding the improvements in the performance of key technical parameters related to primary functions, the level of innovation, and the number of patents over time. Although this method is quite time-consuming, it should be utilized if other approaches fail to demonstrate the significance of transitioning to a new physical phenomenon.

Is it Time for a Switch?

Method—Required Conditions for a New Phenomenon

If several of these conditions are present, then consider a new physical phenomenon to deliver the main modification.

Condition 1: There is a wide variety of these types of systems that have become specialized into niche markets.

Condition 2: The super-system has reached the point of diminishing returns. Are the main technical parameters improving very slowly? If they are not, then the economic competition for the existing phenomenon or technology is likely to be too intense to create an advantage.

Condition 3: Automatic feedback^[24] is used to perform the main super-system function. By the time systems are utilizing extensive feedback, we can generally assume that the system is running out of resources. This is because the use of feedback is costly, indicating that expensive improvements are required to achieve minor changes in performance.

Condition 4: Multiple conflicts must be resolved for even minor improvements. (Many obstacles emerge when we begin to drain the pond.) It is typical that products and services will be filled with compromise “solutions.” Between major improvements in the product, there is a tendency to ignore risks and to accept compromises. As time goes on and the product becomes specialized, these compromises accumulate until changes in the operating environment reveal multiple issues.

Condition 5: Few resources remain. The lines of evolution are no longer profitable, and there are few adjustments that can be made to produce a significant effect.

Explanation

The primary reason we want to understand the system’s maturity is that it is crucial to determine whether there is a necessity to transition to a new physical phenomenon to implement the main modification of the system product. A new physical phenomenon introduces fresh resources that enable the continued evolution of the function or task being performed. Unfortunately, it also carries unknown risks and uncertainties regarding the side effects of the new phenomenon. An additional drawback of adopting a new physical phenomenon is that customers have come to accept certain levels of performance, which will almost certainly not be met unless the transition is facilitated through the use of hybrid phenomena, which will be discussed later.

Example—Measuring Corrosion Rate

In terms of measuring the corrosion rate, we now possess knowledge about the history of corrosion measurement. If we concentrate on the prevailing technology of coupon weight tests for standard corrosion testing, the question we aim to answer relates to transitioning from coupon testing to alternative forms of corrosion testing. The primary competition arises from structural corrosion testing, which employs different technology. Regarding standard testing, electrochemical corrosion testing can be considered a disruptive technology that may soon challenge the slower methods of coupon testing. While other possibilities exist in the patent literature, electrochemical corrosion testing is the most advanced.

If several of these conditions are present, then consider a new physical phenomenon to deliver the main modification.

Condition 1: There is a wide variety of these types of systems that have become specialized in niche markets.

Standardized corrosion testing using coupons has been established for a long time. The corrosion testing services appear to be well-developed and specialized, whereas structural testing continues to expand into diverse markets.

In the realm of corrosion testing, the speed of coupon testing seems to be improving very slowly. This opens the door for the introduction of electrochemical corrosion testing into the standard corrosion testing environment.

Condition 3: Automatic feedback^[25] is utilized to perform the main super-system function. When systems are employing extensive feedback, we can generally assume that the system is running low on resources. This is because the utilization of feedback is costly, indicating that expensive improvements are necessary to achieve minor enhancements in performance.

The author found no substantial evidence that coupon testing has integrated feedback mechanisms.

Condition 4: Multiple conflicts must be resolved for even minor improvements. (Many challenges arise when we begin to drain the pond) It is typical for products and services to be filled with compromise “solutions.” Between significant improvements in the product, there is a tendency to overlook risks and coexist with compromises. As time passes and the product becomes specialized, these compromises accumulate until changes in the operating environment reveal multiple compromises.

Several conflicts emerge, hindering the advancement of coupon testing. The measurement of weight change is the primary issue. The alteration in weight as a percentage of the total weight of the coupon poses a challenge. As this percentage decreases, the experimental noise increases. Another challenge lies in ensuring that the means of removing small amounts of corrosion does not compromise the base material being tested. Additionally, difficulties arise in completely eliminating corrosion that becomes lodged in surface pits, especially when corrosion levels are low. Multiple conflicts alone do not disqualify a physical phenomenon.

Condition 5: Few resources remain. The lines of evolution are no longer profitable, and there are few adjustments that can be made to produce a significant effect.

Summary: It is likely time to transition to a new phenomenon, with electrochemical methods being the most probable option, as they are currently experiencing rapid advancements in corrosion monitoring.

Identify Potential Phenomena

Explanation of Identify Potential Phenomena

Potential Phenomena
If it is time to transition to a new phenomenon, we need to understand our options. Some phenomena will be more ideal due to the abundance of fields and substances, or because of the ease of manipulating the fields. A variety of approaches are provided to create these options.

The observer and the physical phenomenon always come together, but for our purposes, we will consider the phenomena separately as potential physical phenomena. In effect, we are preparing our minds for the next step, in which we consider the resources that will become the observer. Armed with the knowledge of what is possible, it will be easier to identify the value of a resource when we recognize it. In other words, the decision of which physical phenomenon to use will come after assessing the available observer resources.

There are numerous avenues for identifying potential physical phenomena. Certain phenomena are already utilized to perform the function. Others need to be imported from different industries. While the phenomena we discover may not be new in the sense that we have uncovered them through research, they may be “new” to the industry.

Some of the phenomena that we may consider at this stage might seem a little unconventional or too weak to perform the function. Remember that such weaker phenomena can often be enhanced in the later stages of the algorithm. Therefore, it is crucial to maintain an open mind to the possibilities.

Method: Secondary Phenomena

Method

Step 1: What exact parameters require detection?

Step 2: List secondary parameters that change when the main parameter changes. Consider referring to the book Mobilizing Function Resources to identify the secondary parameters.

Step 3: Detect these secondary parameters instead.

Explanation

We start with this method because it lays the groundwork for many of the approaches that follow. For this method, we look for other characteristics of the object being measured that change over time due to a change in the main parameter being measured. Instead of directly measuring the parameter, a secondary parameter can be measured, which is influenced by the primary parameter of interest.^[26] Object parameters always influence one another. The temperature of an object affects its dimensions. The weight of an object influences its buoyancy. In reality, almost all parameters are assessed by measuring a secondary parameter and then inferring the required measurement. It may be necessary to consider various physical phenomena to identify a suitable secondary phenomenon.^[27] To compile an effective list of parameters that could change, we refer to the book “Mobilizing Idle Function Resources” to identify as many physical phenomena that change as possible.

Example—Measurement of Pressure

Step 1: What exact parameter requires detection?

Pressure

Step 2: List secondary parameters that change when the main parameter changes. Consider referring to the book Identifying and Mobilizing Function Resources to identify the secondary parameters.

Step 3: Instead, detect these secondary parameters.

Example—Measuring Corrosion

Step 1: What specific parameter requires detection?

Rate of corrosion

Step 2: List secondary parameters that change when the main parameter varies. Consider referring to the book Identifying and Mobilizing Function Resources to assist in identifying the secondary parameters.

Below is a list of properties of the corroded metal that would change with corrosion. Note that while the list is extensive, properties implying the need to contact or disturb the surface were not included, such as surface hardness, ductility, or toughness. The more ideal scientific effects do not require contact. Furthermore, several of these methods were not considered in the preceding patent search on measuring corrosion. (This indicates an opportunity for someone to develop new devices for detecting corrosion).

No Fields Implied
Structural shape of the surface
Fractal dimension of the surface
Number of active sites
Interaction site surface area
Change in coupon weight
Number of voids
Porosity
Activity of sites
Coupon thickness
Height above the original surface
Coupon volume
Surface density
Surface molecular weight
Thermal Implied
Surface thermal conductivity
Surface thermal capacity
Magnetic Implied
Surface magnetic permeability
Surface magnetic hysteresis
Surface Curie point
Electrical Implied
Surface DC impedance
Surface AC impedance
Surface electrical continuity
Surface ionization potential
Surface electric permittivity
Optical Implied
Optical reflectivity
Optical emissivity
Optical absorption
Optical scattering

Step 3: Detect these secondary parameters instead.

Method: Derivative Detection

Method

Step 1: Measure higher-order derivatives accurately.

Step 2: Integrate as many times as necessary to ascertain the required parameters.

Explanation

One of the most powerful ways to measure a parameter is to assess the rate of change and then integrate.^[28] (Measuring and then differentiating is also an option, but it tends to be quite noisy). With modern computing, integration schemes can be easily implemented. It is also feasible to integrate using analog circuits. This method can additionally be employed to measure any of the secondary phenomena that we have identified.

Example—Measurement of Relative Position of an Object

Step 1: Measure higher-order derivatives.

Attach an accelerometer to the object and measure its acceleration.

Step 2: Integrate as many times as necessary to ascertain the desired parameter.

Integrate twice to find the relative position of the object.

Method: Poorly Performed by Native Fields

Method

Step 1: Is the function already delivered by a super-system observer, even if poorly or delivering a harmful function?

Step 2: What physical phenomenon is employed to inadequately deliver this function?

In the following steps, we can inquire about what modifications to the fields or the observer permit the function to be enhanced. These modifications may require a small addition of substances or structures that react strongly to the native fields.

Explanation

The functions that we are trying to deliver may already be occurring due to weak or difficult-to-observe fields that are already present. Often, these functions are being performed so weakly that we do not notice them. We might also fail to recognize them because they are considered harmful. With some assistance, we can enhance these functions until they become useful^[29].

Example—Corrosion Measurement

We have been examining corrosion using a capacitive load. Is it possible that native fields are already at play?

Step 1: Is the function already delivered by a super-system observer, even if poorly or delivering a harmful function?

A super-system observer would be any object in the super-system that could or might change its capacitance due to changes in the corrosion of the cubes being measured. It is possible that we might find that objects near the corroded cubes have a changed capacitance.

One possibility is to monitor the liquid surrounding the cubes for changes in capacitance, especially if the liquid is allowed to deplete its charges that cause the corrosion. The function is to change the dynamic impedance as a function of corrosion.

Step 2: What physical phenomenon is employed to inadequately deliver this function?

The physical phenomenon is the depletion of charges in the corroding fluid due to the action of corrosion on the cubes.

In the following steps, we can examine what modifications to the fields or the observer facilitate the boosting of the function. These modifications may necessitate a small addition of substances or structures that react strongly to the native fields.

The modification of the fields would occur as we change the initial volume of the corroding fluid, thus altering the susceptibility to oscillating fields.

Method: Analogous Measurement

Method

Step 1: Begin with the required change of properties of the observer due to a change in the properties of the object being measured.

Step 2: State this in a concise, generic format.

Step 3: What other objects require the same measurement?

Step 4: Transfer this feature to the new situation. Consider combining this with the existing subject or transferring the minimum amount of the subject.

Explanation

The previous use of secondary phenomena has prepared us for this approach. The idea of analogous measurement is to seek situations in other industries where either the direct measurement of the parameter or the characteristics we have just uncovered using secondary phenomena are assessed. We then examine the physical phenomena or scientific effects employed there. An analogous phenomenon^[30] produces the required transformation. Stating the modification in a concise generic format allows us to broaden our thinking to other phenomena that can perform the function. This can be transferred to our situation with satisfying results. When we explore industries that operate at a large scale^[31], we can often discover the best evolutionary path up to now. This method can also be utilized to measure any of the secondary phenomena we have identified.

Example—Voltage Change Due to Temperature Change of Hydrogen Gas

Step 1: Begin with the required change in properties of the observer due to a change in properties of the object being measured.

The voltage of the observer object must change due to a temperature change of the gas.

Step 2: State this in a concise, generic format.

Temperature alters voltage. (TàV)

Step 3: What other objects require the same measurement?

Oven temperature sensing requires a voltage change due to a change in gas temperature.

Combustion sensors in automobiles serve as an example where numerous sensors are developed. The evolutionary trends observed here may be preferable to those in other industries.

Step 4: Transfer this feature to the new situation. Consider combining this with the existing subject or transferring the minimum amount of the subject.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

Step 1: Begin with the necessary changes in the properties of the observer due to alterations in the properties of the object being measured.

The height of the coupon must change as the height of the corrosion changes.

Step 2: State this in a concise, generic format.

Corrosion increases the size of the object being corroded.

Step 3: What other objects require the same measurement?

We are seeking other scenarios where a substance is added to a surface and subsequently needs to be measured. Examples include plating deposits, paint, and dyes used to coat surfaces. Next, we inquire how these are measured across different industries. For illustration, let’s explore how deposits are measured. This is a pertinent example because deposits can be very thin, and we want to measure a phenomenon that occurs rapidly, meaning that by the time corrosion is measured, it hasn’t had much opportunity to become very thick. An internet search reveals a potential method: deposition can be measured using a reflectance probe paired with a light source. The reflectance probe is connected to a spectrometer, and the thickness is detected by analyzing the fringe pattern resulting from light reflection.

Step 4: Transfer this feature to the new situation. Consider combining this with the existing subject or transferring the minimum amount of the subject.

There are several manufacturers of this type of equipment. Note that corrosion typically eats into the surface, resulting in a higher volume compared to the original material. This means that the total thickness will be greater than the measured thickness, which will likely necessitate a mathematical correlation between the measured thickness and the actual thickness. We could do this for each characteristic mentioned above, but these pages don’t have the space for that. Suffice it to say that we can find many ways to measure corrosion using this method.

Method: Measure a Copy or Facsimile

Method

Measure a replica of the article. Refer to the list of options in the tan-colored boxes.

Explanation

When it is challenging to measure an attribute that you wish to evaluate, it may be possible to assess a replica^[32] ^[33]of the authentic item. Below is a list of potential replicas. This approach can also be utilized to assess any of the secondary phenomena that we have identified.

Example—Measurement of the Dimensions of an Elastic Article

Traditional measuring instruments such as calipers often deform the article during measurement.

Measure a replica of the article. Refer to the list of possibilities in the tan-colored boxes.

Measure the Silhouette

Example—Corrosion Measurement

Explore innovative techniques to measure the rate of corrosion in metal samples that require significantly less time than traditional methods.

Examine a replica of the article. Refer to the list of options in the tan-colored boxes.

Capture an image of the corroded surface using various wavelengths. These images can then be digitally enhanced and analyzed. Although processing time may be longer than some other methods, the specimen does not need to remain in the acid for an extended period.

Method: Discrete Detection

Method

Step 1: How accurate does the measurement need to be?

Step 2: Break the levels of measurement, or the measurement of a secondary parameter, into discrete categories. Create these categories using a secondary device. Examples include: Discrete volumes, Filters, Musical notes, Go-No-Go gauges, Measuring spoons, Set of Weights.

Step 3: Compare the object being measured or detected to the discrete values.

By ear, compare the musical note to the resonance. The musical note has a known frequency.

Explanation

This thought tool is quite similar to the concept of pre-measurement. In this step, we compare the parameter of one object to the same parameter of another object that exists only at discrete levels. ^[34] This method can also be applied to measure any of the secondary phenomena that we have identified.

Example—Measuring the Resonant Frequency of Objects

Step 1: How accurate does the measurement need to be?

It needs to be within 50 Hz.

Step 2: Break down the levels of measurement, or the measurement of a secondary parameter, into discrete levels. Create these levels in a separate device. Examples include: Discrete volumes, Filters, Musical notes, Go-No-Go gauges, Measuring spoons, Set of Weights.

For the detection of frequency, we will use a digital musical instrument that plays discrete notes.

Step 3: Compare the object being measured or detected to the discrete values.

By ear, compare the musical note to the resonance. The musical note has a known frequency.

Method: Field Markers

Method

Step 1 Internal Fields: Search this list of fields for one that already exists or can appropriately integrate with the majority of the subject. Once the subject has this added field, how does it manifest itself beyond the measured object? We can allow for some of these fields to exist temporarily, or they may require a continuous source.

Internal Stress (May externally manifest as a change in shape, curvature, or movement with the changing parameter.)
Inertial Force (May externally manifest as a change in path, curvature, or movement with the changing parameter.)
Hydrostatic Pressure (May externally manifest a change in shape, curvature, or movement with the changing parameter if the pressure is contained. If not contained, it may manifest a change in density or a variation in bubble volumes or gases coming out of solution.)
Vibration / Sound / Ultrasound (May externally manifest harmonics, movement, ejected particles, or radiated vibrations.)
Current (May manifest a change in the external magnetic or electromagnetic field or heating with the measured changing parameter.)
Thermal Field (May manifest changing external radiation, conduction, or convection, and electromagnetic fields such as infrared or light if sufficiently hot.)
Magnetic Field (May externally manifest a changing magnetic field.)
Electrostatic Fields (Trapped charge, such as holes, may manifest as changing electrostatic fields or induced field gradients in external objects.)
Electromagnetic Fields (May be manifested as changing electromagnetic fields radiated from the object.)

Step 2 Surface Fields: Search this list of fields for those that are already attached or can be permanently or temporarily attached to the subject. Once the subject’s surface has this added field, how does it manifest itself away from the surface? We can allow for some of these fields to exist momentarily, or they may require a continuous source.

Surface Stress (Compressive or tensile—may externally manifest as a change in shape, curvature, or movement with the changing parameter if the surface-to-volume ratio is high.)
Surface Tension (May externally manifest itself as a change in shape, curvature, or movement of external objects.)
Skin Current traveling across the surface (May externally manifest as changing radiated electromagnetic fields.)
Electrostatic Fields (Charges confined to the surface of conductors—may manifest as changing external electrostatic fields or induced field gradients in external objects.)
Reflected Light from Surface (May externally manifest as a changing radiated electromagnetic field.)
Radiation from Surface (May externally manifest as a changing radiated electromagnetic field.)

Step 3 Fields in or on Attached Objects: Attach objects or identify already attached objects and consider introducing the same fields from Steps 1 and 2 above.

Step 4: Fields in the Environment: Search the list of fields below for fields that exist or can be added permanently or temporarily into the environment. Can changes in the parameter you would like to measure affect these fields in any way?

Elastic Stress (Is the environment solid? Can the stresses change with a change in the measured parameter? May be externally manifested in the movement or deformation of the environment?)
Gravity (Does the weight or orientation of the environment change due to a change in the parameter?)
Friction (Does the friction between objects in the environment change due to a change in the measured parameter? May be manifested by slippage between objects.)
Adhesion (Does the adhesion of objects in the environment change due to changes in the measured parameter? May be manifested by segmentation of objects that are normally adhered.)
Buoyant Force (Does the buoyancy of objects in the environment change due to changes in the measured parameter? May be manifested by movement of bodies or fluids.)
Hydrostatic Pressure (Most objects exist in fluids. Does the changing parameter affect the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid? May be manifested by changes in curvature, shape, or size of contained objects in the environment. May manifest through the size of bubbles or gases emerging from solution.)
Jet Pressure (Is the fluid environment in motion, or can it be made to move? Does the changing parameter alter the pressure of the fluid as it moves around objects? May be manifested by changes in curvature, shape, or size of contained objects in the environment. May manifest by bubble size or gases coming out of solution.)
Surface Tension (Does a change in the parameter alter the surface tension that exists at the interface between states of matter? May externally manifest itself as a change in shape, curvature, or movement of fluid interfaces.)
Centrifugal Force (Spin the environment to induce outward motion. Do the centrifugal forces in the environment change with a change in the measured parameter? May be manifested by changes or gradients in hydrostatic or jet pressures, as mentioned above.)
Inertial Force (Put the environment into motion to give it momentum. Does the momentum change when the parameter being measured changes? May be externally manifested by velocity changes or movement of impacted objects.)
Coriolis Force (Put the environment into motion. Do the Coriolis forces change when the parameter being measured changes? May be manifested by changing motion or alignments of objects.)
Odor and Taste (Is there a change in odor or taste due to a change in the parameter?)
Diffusion (Are there normal diffusion processes associated with the measured object or objects in the environment? Is this diffusion affected by the changing parameter? May be manifested by smell or taste; chemical gradients.)
Osmosis (Are there objects in the environment that experience osmosis? Do the changing parameters affect osmosis in these objects? May be externally manifested by changes in ion concentration on either side of osmotic membranes.)
Chemical Fields (Are there compounds in the environment that might be affected by changes in the measured parameter? May be externally manifested by changes in chemical gradients, optical properties of affected compounds; temperatures.)
Sound / Vibration & Oscillations / Ultrasound / Waves (Almost always, there is matter in various states in the environment. Do changes in the measured parameter impact conductance, intensity, gradients, harmonics, and resonance of objects in the environment?)
Thermal Fields / Thermal Shocks (Does a change in the parameters affect the temperature or temperature gradient of the external medium? May manifest external radiation, conduction, or convection, along with electromagnetic fields such as infrared or light if sufficiently hot.)
Information (Does a change in the parameter affect information or the availability of information in the environment? May manifest external loss or changes in data.)
Corona Discharge (Does a change in the parameter affect surface voltages in the environment? Does it impact the availability of ionizing radiation? May externally manifest as the creation of corona discharge or a change in intensity.)
Current / Eddy Currents (Is the environment conductive? Is there already, or could electrical current be introduced into the environment? Does a change in the parameter affect the resistivity, capacitance, or inductance of the environment?)
Particle Beams (Can charged particle beams be introduced into the environment? Does a change in the measured parameter alter the charge density of objects in the system, thus changing the path of the beam?)
Nuclear Forces (Do the atomic elements in the environment change when the measured parameters shift? Are the elements that change detectable with Nuclear Magnetic Resonance techniques?)
Electrostatic Fields (Charges are usually confined to the surfaces of conductors in the environment. Does a change in the measured parameter redistribute charges in the measured object? —may be manifested as external electrostatic fields or induced field gradients in external objects.)
Magnetic Fields (Does a change in the measured parameter affect current flow or magnetic fields that emanate into the environment? May manifest externally as a change in magnetic intensity or a change in charge movement in the environment.)
Electromagnetic Fields / Radio Waves / Microwaves / Infrared / Visible Light / Ultraviolet / X-Ray / Cosmic Rays (Can a change in the measured parameter affect the absorption, conductance, reflectance, polarization, or emission of electromagnetic waves from objects in the environment? May manifest as a change in intensity, direction, or polarization.)

Explanation

This method can be utilized to measure the main parameter or any of the secondary phenomena that we have identified. It is challenging to measure something that cannot be detected initially. For instance, try measuring the length of an object in a dark room. One must first be able to detect substances or fields before they can be quantitatively assessed. Once a substance or field is detectable, we can measure a variety of parameters such as existence, location, path, velocity, degree of segmentation, voids, volume, surface structure, state of matter, bulk properties, gradients of components, the existence of fields, field direction, field gradients, field location, speed, and frequency. However, note that each of these parameters can be measured because either a substance or a field is “detectable.” One way to facilitate the detection of a substance or field is by using markers.

Most of the time when we are measuring a parameter, what we are actually assessing are the fields associated with that parameter. When it becomes difficult to detect or measure a desired parameter, it is often because the materials involved do not generate strong fields that can be measured. Markers are a special type of additive that enhances fields within the system, making them easier to detect. Often, detection occurs directly through sight, touch, smell, or taste. We would prefer to avoid adding substance markers to a system if possible. One way to eliminate the need for adding material markers to the subject is to introduce a temporary or permanent field marker^[35] instead. By introducing a field into the system, it becomes possible to then detect or measure the effect of the changing parameter on the field rather than the substance, although it may not reside permanently in the system.

Internal Field Markers
Internal field markers inhabit the substance of the measured object. Certain fields possess the ability to disperse themselves throughout the bulk of the material. However, the fields or their effects are not constrained to the measured subject. These fields can “leak” out and be detectable. For instance, a thermal field. The subject being measured can become hot or cold. This effect extends into the environment as radiation or heating of the surroundings that can be detected. Other fields generate different types of fields outside of the measured object. For example, a current field can inhabit an object, producing external magnetic fields that can be measured.

Surface Field Markers
Sometimes, a field will disrupt a substance sufficiently that it should not inhabit the subject. Additionally, some fields are primarily tied to surface phenomena and cannot occupy the subject. Here we consider fields that reside on the subject but are not associated with any other substances except the subject. Again, these fields “leak out” or create other fields that can be detected.

Attached Field Markers
If no fields can inhabit the subject or its surface, then consider adding a field to objects already attached to the measured object.

Detached Field Markers
Some of the field-substance combinations in the attached field materials may disrupt the subject or detached object. If this occurs, then there may be secondary effects that the subject causes on the environment, measurable by recognizing an existing field or introducing a field into the immediate environment and then detecting the effect of the measured object on that field.

Example—Determining the Direction of Flow in a Pipe

How can the direction of flow of a liquid be detected in a pipe?

Step 1 Internal Fields: Search this list of fields for one that already exists or can inhabit the bulk of the subject. Once the subject has this added field, how does it manifest itself outside of the measured object? We can allow for some of these fields to exist momentarily, or they may require a constant source.

Sound and vibrations can inhabit the bulk of the water. Solution: Sound is introduced, and the time to traverse a set distance is measured in both directions. A sound introduced in the pipe will have two paths. One is in the pipe and another in the liquid. The sound travels faster in the pipe than in the liquid, and since the pipe is stationary, the time to reach the pickups will be the same if the distance is the same. This path can serve as the reference sound. The time required to travel through the moving fluid is longer than in the pipe. The sound traveling with the liquid will move faster than against the flow of the liquid. An external microphone can detect the sound traveling through the liquid as a secondary signal on both sides of the pipe, providing a measurement of the liquid’s velocity. The difference between the sound traveling through the liquid and the reference sound can be utilized to calculate speed.

Since the pipe surrounds the water, it is challenging to attach a field to the surface of the water. No field or physical phenomenon was identified.

Step 3 Fields in or on Attached Objects: Attach objects or identify already attached objects and consider introducing the same fields from Steps 1 and 2 above.

Thermal fields can inhabit the pipe, which is attached to the liquid. Solution: A heat cuff is affixed to the pipe. The water absorbs the heat into its bulk, causing the pipe to become hotter downstream of the cuff. The heat can be detected by touch.

In this case, the pipe serves as both the attached object and the environment of the liquid. The solution from step 3 satisfies step 4.

Example—Measuring the Rotational Speed of the Rings of Saturn.

How can the rotation speed of Saturn’s rings be measured?

Step 1 Internal Fields: Search this list of fields for one that currently exists or can accommodate the essence of the subject. Once the subject incorporates this added field, how does it manifest itself outside of the measured object? We can allow for some of these fields to exist temporarily, or they may necessitate a continuous source.

Electromagnetic fields may be able to inhabit some components of the rings if they are transparent or translucent. The redshift might be detected from radiation that leaves the bulk of these bodies.

Inertial forces inhabit the constituents of the rings. If it is possible to determine the gravitational force as a function of distance, then the velocity necessary to maintain the rings in their positions can be calculated.

Reflected or emitted light can be attached. The Doppler shift of reflected light allows for the detection of ring velocity. (Opposite sides of the ring have different shifts).

Step 3 Fields in or on attached objects: Attach objects or identify already attached objects and consider introducing the same fields from Steps 1 and 2 above.

No solution is provided.

Step 4: Fields in the environment: Search the list of fields below for those that exist or can be added permanently or temporarily into the environment. Can changes in the parameter you would like to measure affect these fields in any way?

No solution is provided.

Example—Tracking Wild Animals

How can the position of a wild animal be tracked?

Step 1 Internal Fields: Search this list of fields for one that already inhabits or can inhabit the bulk of the subject. Once the subject has this added field, how does it manifest itself outside of the measured object? We can allow for some of these fields to exist momentarily, or they may require a constant source.

Sounds inhabit the animal. If a characteristic sound is emitted, then the animal may be tracked using this sound.

No solution is provided.

Step 3 Fields in or on attached objects: Attach objects or identify already attached objects and consider introducing the same fields from Steps 1 and 2 above.

A small antenna can be inhabited by an alternating electric current, which produces an electromagnetic field. An emitting antenna is attached to the animal. The antenna’s field is detected by another antenna and an amplifying circuit. Triangulation determines where the animal is located.

Step 4: Fields in the environment: Search the list of fields below for those that exist or can be added permanently or temporarily to the environment. Can changes in the parameters you would like to measure affect these fields in any way?

Old time tracking involves observing the patterns of changing stress in the environment caused by the movements of animals.

Another aspect that changes due to the presence of animals is odor. Once again, we can utilize the sensitive sense of smell in dogs to track the animals.

Example—Detecting Planets in Other Solar Systems

How can we detect planets in other solar systems?

Step 1 Internal Fields: Search this list of fields for one that already exists or can exist within the core of the subject. Once the subject has this added field, how does it manifest itself outside of the measured object? We can allow some of these fields to exist momentarily, or they may require a constant source.

Stars and planets are influenced by inertial forces affected by gravitational attraction. Small changes in trajectory can be used to detect planets.

Magnetic fields affect planets and stars. If a planet is close enough to its star, the star’s magnetic field may experience alterations. Magnetic fields disrupt the movement of charged particles, which can be detected.

Step 2 Surface Fields: Search this list of fields for ones that are already attached or can be permanently or temporarily attached to the subject. Once the surface of the subject has this added field, how does it manifest itself beyond the surface? We can allow for some of these fields to exist momentarily, or they may require a constant source.

No solution is offered.

Step 3 Fields in or on attached objects: Attach objects or identify already attached ones and consider introducing the same fields from steps 1 and 2 above.

If a planet is sufficiently close to a star, its corona may be impacted in shape or intensity.

Other large objects wobble due to the gravitational attraction of the planet. The star maintains a thermal field and emits light. Detect the wobble by observing a slight Doppler shift in the light coming from the star.

Example: Detecting Corrosion

How can corrosion be detected on metallic samples?

Step 1 – Internal Fields: Search this list of fields for one that already inhabits or can inhabit the bulk of the subject. Once the subject has this added field, how does it manifest itself outside of the measured object? We can allow for some of these fields to exist momentarily, or they may require a constant source.

A thermal field can inhabit the corrosion. The emission of infrared radiation from the field may be how the corrosion is detected and measured.

Step 2 – Surface Fields: Search this list of fields for those that are already attached or can be permanently or temporarily attached to the subject. Once the subject’s surface has this added field, how does it manifest itself away from the surface? We can allow for some of these fields to exist momentarily, or they may require a constant source.

Skin current is likely the most applicable field. The skin current can be measured as impedance at multiple frequencies.

Step 3 – Fields in or on Attached Objects: Attach objects or identify already attached objects and consider introducing the same fields from steps 1 and 2 above.

No solution has been found.

Step 4 – Fields in the Environment: Search the list of fields below for those that exist or can be added permanently or temporarily to the environment. Can changes in the parameters that you would like to measure alter these fields in any way?

No solution has been found.

Method: Substance Markers

Method

Step 1: Does the subject, or anything that is always associated with the subject, react strongly with any of the fields in the Table of Fields? If so, consider using this substance as the marker before introducing any new substances. The field that reacts strongly can be utilized to make the substance detectable.

Step 2: If not, then introduce a substance marker in/onto the subject or into/onto attached objects. Following is a list of fields and their paired substances. Give greater consideration to the fields that already exist in the parameters being measured. This allows us to avoid adding new fields.

Elastic Stress: stress paint, carbon paper, carriers in germanium and silicon, high creep materials, ferroelectrics
Gravity: liquids, high-density substances, ion channels, mammalian cells, plant roots, endothelial cells, stem cells, lymphocytes, myocytes
Friction: carbon paper,
Adhesion: paired adhesives, easily fragmented materials, powders
Buoyant Force: inflatable structures, bubbles, weights
Hydrostatic Pressure / Jet Pressure: bubbles, dissolved gases, visco-plastics, voids, refrigerants
Surface Tension: tiny floating objects, thin film structures, bubbles, bubble velocity, capillary structures, liquid adhesion/cohesion, microfluidic devices, inks, paint, coatings
Centrifugal / Inertial Force / Coriolis Force: low viscosity liquids, flyweights, shock sensors, springs, certain living cells, halteres structure of insects, biological structures in birds
Odor / Taste / Chemical Fields: chemical sensing cells in plants and animals, such as taste buds or olfactory cells, paired reactive chemicals too numerous to mention.
Diffusion: gases with high or low molecular weight, flames
Osmosis: ions of various sizes, crystalloids, shaped molecules (especially spherically), resin polyesters,
Sound: small objects, resonant objects such as vibrating wires, super-saturated liquids and solids
Vibration / Oscillation / Ultrasound / Waves: resonant objects (resonate), piezo materials (generate voltages), vibration-sensitive crystals, low/high viscosity liquids, super-saturated liquids and solids (may coalesce), vapors at sub-critical temperatures (may coalesce), sub-critical temperature solutions (crystallize), magnetic objects (cause voltage changes in electrical loops), nerve tissue (dies), tanzanite (disintegrates), purified rennin, alkaloids (change color), liquids (ultrasound cavities generate high voltages across them which can be detected), sub-critical temperature solutions (crystallize), buoyant objects
Thermal Heating or Cooling / Thermal Shocks: state-changing materials, certain ceramics, tanzanite, CaF2, HCB-18, ZrO2, cryogenic gases and liquids, dissolved gases.
Corona Discharge: easily ionized gases
Current / Eddy Currents: thermo-resistant materials, magnetic materials, easily conductive materials, semi-conductive materials, superconductors,
Particle Beams: luminescent materials, easily ionized materials,
Nuclear Forces: easily ionized materials, elements with unbalanced charges in the nucleus such as certain isotopes, fissionable materials, fusible materials
Electrostatic Fields: easily ionized gases, easily charged materials such as sulfur or linen, materials with free charges such as metals, small electro-chargeable objects that repel each other.
Magnetic Fields: magnetic materials, magnetic powder, superconductors,
Electromagnetic Fields—Radio Waves—Microwaves—Infrared—Visible Light—Ultraviolet—X-Ray—Cosmic Radiation: low curie point materials, photo-sensitive materials, easily ionized materials,

Step 3: Identify secondary effects of changing parameters on the existence of substances in the immediate environment. Do these substances have strongly paired fields? Consider using these substances as the markers and then detect and measure the change to these markers.

Step 4: Identify secondary effects of changing parameters on the existence of fields in the environment. Do these field changes have strongly paired substances? Consider adding a substance marker to the environment to make these field changes detectable.

Step 5: Reduce the amount of additive necessary. Consider especially active or concentrated additives (very little is needed). Consider a temporary additive (eliminated or self-eliminated when not needed). Consider decomposition of native materials (use only the part that delivers the function. It can be chemically decomposed or segmented)

Explanation

This method can be used to measure the main parameter or any of the secondary phenomena that we have identified. Having addressed field markers, we now consider substance markers. A substance marker is an additive or existing substance that reacts to a paired field in such a way that it is easily detectable. A “paired” field is one that is uniquely matched with the substance in such a way that it reacts very strongly to it. For example, magnetic substances react strongly to magnetic fields. Like field markers, substance markers allow for the detection of the existence of a substance or field, which then allows other parameters to be measured.

Let’s consider the refrigerant leak example, which will be given later. Refrigerant leaks are difficult to detect because once the refrigerant leaks into the atmosphere, it vaporizes. Most refrigerants also carry a small amount of lubricating oil for the compressor, which can be detected if a significant amount of refrigerant escapes. Wouldn’t it be easier if the refrigerant flashed a neon sign, so to speak, to announce its location? The use of markers almost creates a neon sign. If a luminescent substance that is compatible with the refrigerant and oil is introduced into the coolant loop, any refrigerant that escapes will also leave behind some of this luminescent material, which is easily detected with ultraviolet light. The process involves first introducing a luminescent substance marker into the refrigerant. Next, introduce a field that is strongly paired with the luminescent substance. The luminescent substance marker then gives off another field, light, which is easily detected by the human eye. Once we can detect the refrigerant, we can employ further means to measure its attributes.

Note that substance markers are different from field markers. In the case of field markers, we added a field to the substances of the system and then detected the manifestation of that field as the measured parameters changed. The introduction of a field is more ideal since no substance has to be added. However, if substances that react strongly to fields are already present in the system, then the use of substance markers can be very effective. The tan box provides other methods to make the addition of markers more optimal. Consider these ways to produce additives that are nearly nonexistent.^[36]

Internal, Attached, and Detached Markers
An internal marker is a substance additive that is mixed with or embedded in the subject. This substance interacts with a corresponding field to aid detection.^[37] An attached marker is a marker that resides on the exterior of the subject. This may be done to avoid contamination or because it does not easily mix with the subject. A detached marker may be necessary if interaction with the subject and marker must be minimized. In this case, a secondary effect that the subject has on the environment is detected.^[38] Remember that the ideal additive is one that is essentially nonexistent.

Example—Detection of Refrigerant Leaks

Find a method to detect the leakage of automotive refrigerant.

Step 1: Does the subject or anything that is always attached to the subject react strongly with any of the fields in the Table of Fields? If so, then consider using this substance as the marker before introducing any new substances. The field that reacts strongly can be used to make the substance detectable.

The refrigerant does not react strongly to any of the fields or in a manner that is easily detectable.

Step 2: If not, then introduce a substance marker into/on the subject or into/onto attached objects. Below is a list of fields and paired substances. Give greater consideration to the fields that already exist in the parameters being measured. This allows us to avoid adding new fields.

A luminescent material is introduced into the lubricant. A black light reveals the location of the leak.

Step 3: Identify secondary effects of changing parameters on the presence of substances in the immediate environment. Do these substances have strongly paired fields? Consider using these substances as markers and then detect and measure the changes to these markers.

No major secondary effects.

One secondary effect is on the chemical fields in the environment. If a strong-smelling chemical compound is added to the refrigerant, it might be possible to detect the location by smell.

Step 5: Reduce the amount of additive necessary. Consider especially active or concentrated additives (very little is needed). Consider temporary additives (eliminated or self-eliminated when not needed). Consider decomposition of native materials (use only the part that delivers the function. It can be chemically decomposed or segmented).

There are several highly luminescent materials identified through an internet search.

Example—Detecting the Movement of Bacteria

How can we detect the movement of bacteria?

Step 1: Does the subject or anything always attached to the subject react strongly with any of the fields in the Table of Fields? If so, consider using this substance as the marker before introducing any new substances. The field that reacts strongly can be used to make the substance detectable.

The bacteria respond to diffusion, but not in a detectable manner. Something must make the bacteria detectable.

Step 2: If not, introduce a substance marker in/onto the subject or into/onto attached objects. Following is a list of fields and paired substances. Give greater consideration to the fields that already exist in the parameters being measured. This helps avoid adding new fields.

No solution is found.

Step 3: Identify secondary effects of changing parameters on the existence of substances in the immediate environment. Do these substances have strongly paired fields? Consider using these substances as markers and then detect and measure the change to these markers.

The movement of bacteria leaves waste products in the environment. The medium is modified to react with the waste products to make the bacteria visible. Since the waste products vary for each type of bacteria, it’s necessary to adjust the chemical markers added to the environment.

The presence of bacteria does not largely change any fields in the environment.

It would be preferable to have a substance that does not affect the bacteria or their movement.

Example—Detecting Corrosion

We would like to detect the presence of corrosion.

The corrosion reacts strongly to electrical and electromagnetic fields universally. It may also interact with magnetic fields depending on the metal being corroded. In these cases, the corrosion itself can be the marker.

One paired combination that stands out is the possibility of introducing isotopes into the materials being tested. If the corrosion is easily removed from the surface, then the isotopes would come with it and could be detected by radiographic means.

Step 3: Identify secondary effects of changing parameters on the existence of substances in the immediate environment. Do these substances have strongly paired fields? Consider using these substances as markers and then detect and measure the change to these markers.

The corrosion does not appear to affect the existence of substances in the immediate environment. No solution is provided.

The presence of corrosion changes the frequency and amplitude of electromagnetic fields in the environment. It may be possible to use photosensitive materials in the environment tuned to certain frequencies to detect the corrosion.

Due to the decay of isotopes, it may be possible to use very small amounts. Simply expose the samples to high-energy neutron radiation to create the isotopes. This could amount to a very small amount of additive.

Method: Multiplied Subject Elements

Method

Step 1: Do the subjects arrive in natural groups or batches, or are they difficult to separate? Is it beneficial to know the average value rather than the individual measurement values?

Step 2: Can the subjects be multiplied in a meaningful manner?

Step 3: Can these subjects be combined or interact to create an unexpected capability? Experiment with different orientations.

Explanation

This method can be used to measure the main parameters or any of the secondary phenomena that we have identified. This tool arises from the standards involving multiple system elements.^[39] ^[40] ^[41] ^[42] Often, it is easier to detect the average parameter of many objects than to detect the properties of a single object. This is almost always true when measuring the properties of small entities such as particles, molecules, and atoms. If you can cause them to interact with one another, it may be possible to amplify the effects that you wish to measure.

Example—Measuring the Temperature of an Insect

How can the temperature of small insects be measured for the purpose of establishing their metabolic rate?

Step 1: Do the subjects come in natural batches or groups, or are they difficult to separate? Is it beneficial to know the average value as opposed to individual measurement values?

It is beneficial to know the average value instead of the individual values.

Step 2: Can the subjects be gathered in a meaningful way?

Yes, they can be collected into a group of insects.

Step 3: Can these subjects merge or interact to create an unexpected capability? Try different configurations.

Measuring the insects as a group simplifies the process and provides an average value which may be more suitable in certain situations.

Example—Measuring Corrosion

How can the corrosion of a metallic sample be measured?

Step 1: Do the subjects come in natural batches or groups, or are they hard to separate? Is it beneficial to know the average value compared to individual measurement values?

The corrosion initially occurs in pockets or areas across the metal specimen. They appear as a group but are already separate. It is beneficial to know the average corrosion value.

Step 2: Can the subjects be increased in a meaningful way?

They are already multiplied. Increasing samples is an option but this would require segmenting the sample. One advantage of this approach is that it would significantly increase the surface area (corrodible area). Such a segmented sample would need to maintain constant electrical contact with the corresponding electrode (usually the cathode). This could be achieved by distributing the segmented metal across a non-conductive surface. If the particles are sufficiently small, then the corrosion rate could be measured by the time taken to corrode the particles enough to break all electrical continuity.

On the other hand, several of the patents used multiple sensors to account for the variation in corrosion rate across a surface. Understanding the worst corrosion rates rather than the average rate can be crucial, as localized corrosion often compromises structures. The average may be low, but localized corrosion can still significantly weaken critical structures. This should be kept in mind for the final decision.

Step 3: Can these subjects merge or interact to create an unexpected capability? Try different configurations.

It might be possible to get the particles to conduct current from one to another if they were simply touching each other within a defined volume. The resulting current, as the particles corrode, would indicate the corrosion rate.

Method: Resonance

Method

Step 1: Identify whether there is a natural resonance in the system for any of the following types of field resonance: Mechanical Vibration, Sound, Fluid Surface Waves, Electrical Resonance, Particle States, Electromagnetic Oscillation, Nuclear Resonance.

Step 2: If the resonance is weak, are there ways to enhance the resonance so that a change in the measured parameter influences the resonance? Consider attaching an object and measuring the resonant amplitude, frequency, or decay rate of oscillation.

Explanation

This method can be used to measure the main parameters or any of the secondary phenomena that we have identified. Resonance^[43] is an important type of secondary parameter. Many parameters can be measured through the resonance of an object or an attached object^[44]. Virtually every field can be detected via resonance. (Thermal resonance is challenging to achieve). It can occur at all levels, from macro objects to particles, molecules, atoms, and electrons. It may be necessary to induce oscillations in the subject to measure the resonant frequency.^[45]

Example—Measurement of Resistance in a Wire and Its Connections

Step 1: Identify if there is a natural resonance in the system for any of the following types of field resonance: Mechanical Vibration, Sound, Fluid Surface Waves, Electrical Resonance, Particle States, Electromagnetic Oscillation, Nuclear Resonance.

All electrical systems exhibit resonance.

Step 2: If the resonance is weak, are there ways to enhance the resonance such that a change in the measured parameter influences the resonance? Consider attaching an object and measuring the resonant amplitude, frequency, or decay rate of oscillation.

A capacitor and inductor can be added in series. A change in resistance will affect how quickly the resonance decays.

Example—Measurement of Corrosion

Step 1: Determine if there is a natural resonance in the system for any of the following types of field resonance: Mechanical Vibration, Sound, Fluid Surface Waves, Electrical Resonance, Particle States, Electromagnetic Oscillation, Nuclear Resonance.

Since high-frequency electrical current travels along the upper layers of a conductor, the effect of corrosion should create a significant change in the impedance of the surface current. This, in turn, should lead to a detectable change in the resonant frequencies of these surface currents.

Step 2: If the resonance is weak, are there ways to enhance the resonance so that a change in the measured parameter affects the resonance? Consider attaching an object and measuring the resonant amplitude, frequency, or decay rate of oscillation.

Inductors and capacitors can be added to enhance the resonance of the circuit.

Method: Natural Analogous Observer

Method

Step 1: Begin with the necessary adjustments to the properties of the observer in response to changes in the properties of the object being measured.

Step 2: Summarize this in a brief format.

Step 3: Where does this transformation take place in nature?

Step 4: Apply this feature to the new situation. Consider integrating it with the existing observer or transferring the minimum necessary elements of the observer.

Explanation

Nature has developed many analogous phenomena that can be utilized to perform various functions. In addition to naturally occurring physical phenomena, there are also biological phenomena that allow for the execution of these functions. When biological functions are applied, this practice is referred to as bio-mimicry^[46]. Identifying elements in nature that serve the same function can guide the seeker towards discovering new physical phenomena.

Example—Voltage Change Due to Temperature Variation of Hydrogen Gas

How can the temperature of hydrogen gas be measured using a novel approach?

Step 1: Begin with the necessary change in properties of the observer due to a change in the properties of the object being measured.

The voltage of the observer must change in response to a temperature variation of the gas.

Step 2: State this in a concise format.

Temperature changes voltage. (TàV)

Step 3: Where does this transformation take place in nature?

Large amounts of charge accumulate during storms, partly due to convection in clouds.

Step 4: Apply this feature to the new situation. Consider integrating this with the existing observer or transferring the minimum amount of the observer.

Temperature variation causes gas movement that interacts with charged moisture, inducing voltage in nearby objects.

Method: Library of Scientific Effects

Method

Step 1: Convert the given informing function into a generalized informing function. If a resource filter is available, then filter for the fields and the substances.

Step 2: Locate phenomena in the Library of Scientific Effects. Some commercial software includes this library, and a scaled-down version can be found at: http://function.creax.com/

Explanation

This method can be utilized to measure the primary parameter or any of the secondary phenomena we have identified. Generally, the Library of Effects serves as a table of physical phenomena that can be used to provide functions. However, in the case of informing functions, the library is employed differently. We simply navigate to the measurement section and seek new ways to measure a parameter. In some scenarios involving informing functions, it is beneficial to simplify some technical jargon. For instance, if we aim to detect byproducts of corrosion, we may avoid using the term rust and instead refer to it as porous materials. In other cases, it is crucial to retain the technical terminology.

Example—Measurement of Corrosion Rate

By this point, we have compiled an extensive list of potential methods to detect and measure corrosion.

Electrical Resistance (Patents)
Linear Polarization (Patents)
Galvanic Current (Patents)
Measuring Back Scatter of Beta Nuclear Radiation (Patents)
Measuring the Rate of Decay of the Potential of the Electric Double Layer (Patents)
Alternating Current Impedance (Patents)
Low Frequency Noise Voltage (Patents)
MRI (Patents)
Infrared Radiation Reflection (Patents)
Magnetometer Measures Magnetic Fields (Patents)
Digital Imaging (Patents/Products)
Corrosion Through a Multitude of Elements (Patents)
Ultrasound (Patents)
Structural Shape of the Surface (New)
Fractal Dimension of Surface (New)
Number of Active Sites (New)
Interaction Site Surface Area (New)
Change in Coupon Weight (Patents)
Number of Voids (New)
Porosity (New)
Activity of Sites (New)
Coupon Thickness (Patents)
Height Above Original Surface (Patents)
Coupon Volume (Inferred from Patents)
Surface Density (New)
Surface Molecular Weight (New)
Surface Thermal Conductivity (New)
Surface Thermal Capacity (New)
Surface Magnetic Permeability (New)
Surface Magnetic Hysteresis (New)
Surface Curie Point (New)
Surface DC Impedance (New)
Surface AC Impedance (Inferred from Patents)
Surface Electrical Continuity (New)
Surface Ionization Potential (New)
Surface Electric Permittivity (New)
Optical Reflectivity (Inferred from Patents)
Optical Emissivity (New)
Optical Absorption (New)
Optical Scattering (New)
Fringe Pattern of Reflected Light (Patents)
Difference in Digital Images (Products)
Emission from the Thermal Field (New)
Impedance of Skin Current (Implied from Products)
Loss of Isotope (New)
Photosensitive Materials Tuned to Certain Frequencies (New)
Scattering Particles Across a Non-Conductive Surface—Measure Time to Loss of Continuity (New)
Resonance of Surface Currents (New)

Note that many of these are new, and we are unsure how to measure the change in the given parameter. Each of these secondary parameters could lead us to innovative methods for measuring corrosion. For brevity, we will select one to demonstrate how it is done. Let us choose the measurement of porosity as an example and see what the Library of Scientific Effects reveals.

Step 1: Convert the given informing function into a generalized informing function. If a resource filter is available, then filter for the fields and the substances.

The generalized function is the measurement of porosity. In this case, the technical terminology must remain.

Step 2: Locate phenomena in the Library of Scientific Effects. Some commercial software versions provide this library, and a scaled-down version can be found at: http://function.creax.com/

The scientific effect of evaporation from a porous surface is proposed. A fixed volatile liquid is introduced into a porous surface and allowed to evaporate. The temperature achieved is a function of the surface area, which indicates porosity. During this process, it was discovered that the library of scientific effects used distinguishes between “detecting” and “measuring.” “Measuring” falls under parameter measurement. “Detecting” can refer to substances or fields, which are separated in the table.

Method: Search Patents

Method

Step 1: Determine whether there is a need for patent searching. Do you need to identify potential physical phenomena that you can use to achieve the measurement you are seeking? Do you need to understand the phenomenon more deeply? Do you require a chain of circuits back to the observer? Do you need an idea of the technologies from which you might be excluded? Do you need to understand the weaknesses of existing patents so you can develop and present your invention to exclude others?

Step 2: Using the Google patent search feature, search for a patent directly related to the parameters and/or the secondary parameters that you are trying to measure.

Step 3: Identify the classifications.

Step 4: Use Google search with the classification that seems most relevant. Add any additional terms that can help narrow down to the best patents.

Step 5: Examine all the patents referenced by this patent. Identify those that apply and look at their references. Ignoring the references you have already encountered, focus on the new references and assess their applicability. Continue this process until no new patents related to your area of interest appear.

Step 6: Note other electronic or additional elements in the system that enable the conversion of the parameter measurement to a voltage, current, or other acceptable means of measurement.

Explanation

Why Search for Patents Now?

One of the most opportune times to conduct a patent search is when seeking physical phenomena to deliver a function for several reasons.

First, you may be able to discover potential physical phenomena that you can leverage to achieve the measurement you are pursuing.

Second, patents contain a wealth of information. You can learn about the issues associated with the phenomena and how they are addressed. Patents are structured so that others can replicate the results of an invention, and as a result, many details must be shared. A multitude of additional insights is gained along the way, enhancing our overall understanding of physics. Grasping a diverse range of physical phenomena will make you a more innovative inventor! The pitfalls arise when we focus solely on specific areas of physics in depth. Remaining “specialists” can impose limitations on our creativity.

Third, patent searches provide insight into technologies we might inadvertently avoid. Given that there are numerous ways to navigate around existing technologies, why take the risk of infringing on someone’s patent?

Fourth, patent searches shed light on the vulnerabilities of existing patents, equipping us with the knowledge to develop and present our invention in a way that excludes others.

Don’t Wait Too Long

Many individuals delay their patent search during the inventive process. Typically, they wait until significant time and resources have been invested in developing their invention, only to discover that someone has already patented their idea or that more beneficial and elegant solutions are available. This can be a harsh realization! The tendency to wait too long arises from several factors.

First, excitement over an idea can lead people to rush into development. They believe they must act promptly to prevent someone else from stealing it or to maintain their motivation. This fear is often unfounded. Patience is key; plenty of inventions await if this one doesn’t succeed.

Secondly, the prospect of conducting a patent search can induce fear. It can feel akin to knowing you should see a doctor but fearing they’ll deliver bad news. It’s easy to postpone this task; however, like consulting a physician, the time investment is minimal compared to the time that can be squandered by delaying action. You might spend a few days on a comprehensive patent search, which is a small investment relative to the typical development time for an invention. While the resulting information can feel somewhat deflating, starting with a realistic perspective is ultimately more beneficial.

Thirdly, some may perceive a patent search as beyond their capabilities. After all, professionals are employed full-time to conduct patent searches! Yet, this fear is misplaced. Remember that you have several advantages over professional patent searchers. You are driven by the potential of your idea (whereas a patent examiner is motivated by salary and must meet minimum standards). You are not bound by time constraints and can afford to search exhaustively. Moreover, you have greater familiarity with the technology than they do. With some practice, this seemingly overwhelming task can become routine and approachable.

Fourth, grasping the intricacies of patents can be challenging. Indeed, patent attorneys employ their own specialized terminology. In this lexicon, there are no restrictions against creating new terms! As a result, patents can come across as rigid and…legal. The legal profession benefits from this perception, leading us to believe only patent attorneys can interpret patents. On the contrary, anyone can thoroughly understand a patent if they are willing to invest the time. Patents follow a repeatable structure, allowing you to learn which sections to focus on for specific information. And remember, it’s much easier to learn to read patents when you are motivated by a compelling idea. This motivation will push you into the patent realm. Read, digest, and diagram it. Soon enough, you will be fluent in “patenteze.” Although reading and comprehending your first patent may take several hours, subsequent patents will be significantly easier to process.

Fifth, some individuals fear that observing others’ solutions will stifle their own creative thinking. While there is a possibility this could occur temporarily, it is important to recognize that these resources are designed to challenge our comfort zones. There are countless opportunities to inspire ourselves to think outside the box.

It is perfectly all right not to understand everything about patents when you start your search. Just like first-time drivers, it’s impossible to know what you don’t know, but every journey must begin somewhere. If you make errors, keep in mind that a world of potential inventions awaits. Dive in, and you’ll discover your capacity is far greater than you imagined!

The Structure of Patents
Most patents open with an overview of typical approaches that are currently available. This context clarifies why their idea represents an enhancement. It generally outlines the history of the problem (and sometimes the industry) and provides a look at alternative physical phenomena previously utilized. Following this historical context is a description of the invention and the improvements it brings. This section discloses new physical phenomena that may have been employed and how various object attributes influence the product’s operation. The inventor may also elucidate how they overcame conflicting issues. Clearly articulating the contradiction solved is essential in demonstrating why their invention is “non-obvious to those skilled in the art.” This is the primary obstacle to obtaining a patent. Following this section is a detailed description of the invention’s architecture, offering valuable insights into the underlying physics. Lastly, the claims section outlines the scope of what the patent examiner deemed allowable for the invention.

Preparing for Patent Searching
Most of what you need can be accomplished by utilizing the Google patent search. You can search for patents, examine specific patents, and view patent illustrations. Reviewing the drawings is especially important as they convey a lot of information quickly. A patent summary is typically provided as the first search result. Setting up your computer for your first patent search should take less than an hour. Here’s how to configure your computer’s browser with the necessary bookmarks for a basic patent search:

Step 1: Go to www.uspto.gov. This is the official patent website for the US government. By familiarizing yourself with this site, you will discover that significant efforts have been made to streamline patent search and application processes for individuals. All forms are available for self-application, with a noticeable bias toward assisting individuals over corporations. This is particularly evident if you submit a patent for consideration (known as prosecuting a patent). Personnel at the patent office often go above and beyond to assist individuals, particularly those who are unfamiliar with the process.

Step 2: Bookmark the definition of classifications and assign it a memorable name. It can be found at: http://www.uspto.gov/web/patents/classification/selectnumwithtitle.htm. Each patent is assigned a classification. Having a link to these classifications helps the searcher differentiate between them. When you arrive at this page, you’ll see a numbering system that begins with items like “apparel.” Keep in mind that this is an outdated classification system based on products available when it was established. Scroll down this list to find more contemporary classifications. By clicking on any one of the definitions, you’ll access sub-classifications. Patents typically get assigned a main classification along with at least one sub-classification. When you select a classification number, you’ll eventually reach the definitions.

Step 3: Bookmark the index of classifications and give it a memorable name. It can be found at: http://www.uspto.gov/web/patents/classification/uspcindex/indextouspc.htm. When you have an invention with a common name, you can locate its classification using this index, with everything listed in alphabetical order. For example, if you’re working on an improvement for hand shovels, you can navigate to “shovels” and discover various objects referred to as shovels, such as hand shovels, power shovels, crane shovels, loading shovels, and plow shovels, among others. This knowledge is crucial, as many of these systems offer the same capability as yours. Essentially, they provide analogous functions within different industries. It is possible they employ physical phenomena and evolutionary lines distinct from your industry. These insights could be invaluable in your case. Moreover, once you identify other analogous products later on, you can easily locate their patents through this index.

Example—Measurement of Corrosion Rate

When the Library of Scientific Effects was demonstrated, we compiled an extensive list of parameters that could be measured to yield a corrosion measurement. We could search patents pertaining to any of these methods and relate them to how we might gauge corrosion rate. This time, let’s explore how electric permittivity might be assessed through patent searches.

Step 1: Determine if there is a need for a patent search. Do you need to identify potential physical phenomena to help with the measurement you seek? Do you need a deeper understanding of the phenomenon? Do you require the chain of circuits leading back to the observer? Do you need insight into the technologies you might be restricted from? Do you need an understanding of existing patent weaknesses to assist in the development and presentation of your invention to exclude others?

The answer to all these questions is “yes.”

Step 2: Utilize the Google patent search feature to find a patent directly related to the parameters and/or secondary parameters you wish to measure.

By using the Google patent search feature, we located patent US54815690, titled “Apparatus and methods for measuring permittivity in materials.” This patent outlines a method for assessing the permittivity of curing polymers. Multiple flat electrodes are affixed to the material being evaluated, with each electrode coupling to the next through the material via fringing fields. By activating different electrodes, various spacings are created, impacting the effective capacitance between each antenna. By applying alternating voltage signals to the antenna and measuring the current response, the “capacitance” of each configuration can be determined. Subsequently, a permittivity is calculated for the material at various depths. It is important to note that this patent’s subject matter directly relates to the purpose of measuring corrosion that we intend to achieve. A notable feature is its capability to measure permittivity at varying depths, and measuring at different intervals allows for the assessment of the corrosion rate.

Step 3: Identify the classification(s).

Upon examining this patent, we find that its classifications include 324/674; 324/634; 324/661; 324/687; 340/870.37. By utilizing the class number & titles link, we discover that classification 324 (which pertains to three of the classifications) is titled “electricity: measuring and testing.” This is a very broad classification, likely encompassing all permittivity measurements. In contrast, classification 340 is specifically about “communications: electrical,” which could narrow our search too much. Therefore, for now, let’s focus on classification 324. However, since there are several subclasses for 324, we must carefully identify the one that aligns most closely with our search criteria. Not to suggest that other subclasses might not apply, but choosing the closest one provides a better starting point for our search. By leveraging the definitions of classifications and the index of classifications, we identify the closest classification as 324/663: Subclass 663 applies to 600 IMPEDANCE, ADMITTANCE, OR OTHER QUANTITIES REPRESENTATIVE OF ELECTRICAL STIMULUS/RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS (1 dot), 649 Lumped parameters (2 dots), 658 Using capacitive type measurement (3 dots), and 663 Where a material or object forms part of the dielectric being measured. Since corrosion forms part of the dielectric being measured, this designation corresponds specifically to what we aim to measure.

Step 4: Use the Google search employing the classification that appears most relevant. Augment your search with any additional terms that may lead to the most pertinent patents.

I included the search term “corrosion” by conducting a Google patent search for “324/663 corrosion.” This resulted in the discovery of a very intriguing patent that aligns even more closely with our objectives: US4481616—Scanning Capacitance Microscope. This invention utilizes a very small conductive tip that scans across a conductive substrate covered by a substance (like corrosion). Because the corrosion presents a different permittivity than the substrate, this difference manifests as a variation in capacitance between the conductive probe and the conductive substrate. The probe scans across the surface and detects capacitance changes that may signify defects, corrosion, and so forth.

Step 5: Examine all patents referenced by this patent. Identify which of them are applicable, and check their references. Disregarding references you are already familiar with, focus on the new references and evaluate their relevance. Continue this process until there are no additional patents related to your area of interest.

This process was implemented, tracing the patent history back to the period before previous references were mandated in new patents (circa 1946). The earliest references identified were from 1932. Following that, every reference was reviewed for relevance. New references were also examined. Due to the popularity of capacitance sensing in assessing the properties of materials between electrodes, there were far more patents than could be documented in this text. An Excel file was maintained to track applicable patents and those that were not. This facilitated interleaving new patents and monitoring for further developments. Both patents that were relevant and those that were not have to be documented to prevent rereading patents already reviewed. Below are a few patents that appeared applicable:

US1878109—20-Sep-32—Means for determining the moisture content and quality of materials—Employs capacitive change within a material to gauge moisture levels, recognizing that material variations can alter the capacitance of an oscillating circuit. Utilizes vacuum tubes and has no previous references.
US2043241—9-Jun-36—Apparatus for determining the moisture content of a material—Employs capacitive change in a material to assess the moisture content of grains, recognizing material variability can alter the capacitance of an oscillating circuit. Also uses vacuum tubes and has no previous references.
US2076441—U6-Apr-37—Moisture tester and method—Employs capacitive change in a material to measure grain moisture content, acknowledging variability in materials can alter the capacitance of an oscillating circuit. Utilizes vacuum tubes and has no previous references.
US2222221—19-Nov-40—Method and apparatus for testing steel strip thickness—Employs capacitive change in a material to determine the thickness of metal strips, noting that variation in materials can alter the capacitance of an oscillating circuit. Utilizes vacuum tubes and a piezo crystal, forming a resonant circuit with high oscillating current. Changes in capacitance lead the response away from the resonant frequency, causing a rapid drop in current amplitude. This patent has no previous references.
US2251641—5-Aug-41—Apparatus for Testing Materials—Measures moisture content using both capacitance and resistance and employs vacuum tubes. This patent has no previous references.
US2266114—16-Dec-41—Moisture determining apparatus—Employs capacitive change in a material to ascertain moisture content in grains, recognizing that variations can alter the capacitance of an oscillating circuit. Also uses vacuum tubes. This patent has no previous references.
US2373846—17-Apr-45—Method and apparatus for measuring moisture in materials—Addresses the issue of conductance in dielectrics, noting that, despite non-conducting plates, charges fluctuate across the dielectric due to material conductivity. This information may be pertinent to corrosion measurement. This patent has no previous references.
US2399582—30-Apr-46—Electrical Inspection and Sorting—Utilizes capacitance to measure changes and has no previous references.
US2422742—24-Jun-47—Meter for measuring moisture—Employs capacitive change within a material to assess moisture levels in grains, recognizing that variations can alter the capacitance of an oscillating circuit. Also uses vacuum tubes. This patent includes numerous references. All subsequent patents have various references that were assessed for relevance.
US2529846—14-Nov-50—Zero Suppression system for electronic moisture register instruments—Measures moisture in materials using side-by-side plates, revealing that increased moisture leads to higher power absorption. This patent employs vacuum tubes.
US2535027—26-Dec-50—Apparatus for measuring and controlling moisture content or similar—Uses alterations in series resistance of capacitors and changes in capacitance to determine moisture content and adjust the production process.
US2562575—31-Jul-51—Electronic Device for Measuring Physical Constants—Measures the capacitance of objects using a crystal oscillator of known although slightly variable frequency.
US2772394—27-Nov-56—Devices for locating protruding metal objects in shoes—Utilizes a capacitor probe extended on a handle into a shoe. The capacitance of the probe sharply changes when near a protruding metal object, displaying minimal response to non-protruding items. It employs vacuum tubes. Interestingly, this probe reacts strongly to protruding metal objects even if they do not fully breach the probe barrier.
US2948850—9-Aug-60—Apparatus for analyzing weight composition of materials—Aims to separately measure moisture content and dry weight by utilizing resonant frequency and the amplitude of tank circuit signals.
US3122956—3-Mar-64—Apparatus for detecting and removing defective sections of advancing textile material—Primarily a capacitance measuring circuit, implementing transistors in lieu of vacuum tubes. The schematics may offer valuable insights on measuring capacitance in corrosion scenarios; however, it is not particularly innovative.
US3764899—1973—Apparatus for measuring variations in thin plastic films—Measures thickness variations down to 5 millionths of an inch in plastic film threaded between electrodes.
US3815021—1974—Two Threshold level detector employing a capacitive or inductive probe for sorting—Sorts items on a conveyor belt using capacitance and a bridge circuit.
US4481616—6-Nov-84—Scanning Capacitance Microscope—This is the patent noted at the beginning, which is likely the closest match to our objectives.

Step 6: Note other electronic or additional elements in the system that facilitate the conversion of the measurement parameter to a voltage, current, or similar satisfactory means of measurement.

Patents represent one of the best resources for discovering effective methods of converting measurements to voltage or current. Numerous circuits were found, too many to detail here. As most of these patents have expired, they present a wealth of innovative ideas that can be integrated into your invention. Several of these concepts can be repackaged within your project.

Method: Intelligent Little People

Method

Step 1: Envision the system as made up of intelligent little people who can work together. These individuals also have the ability to disappear and reappear when necessary. What do they do to achieve the desired outcome? How do they intelligently act in unison?

Step 2: Consider possible physical phenomena that can facilitate this cooperation.

Explanation

There may be steps in the process that we do not yet comprehend how to achieve. In essence, we need to discover a new method to convey an informative function. This signifies a genuine synthesis of a new idea. One of the most crucial investigative tools is empathy. This is the capacity to immerse ourselves in the system we are examining and to perceive it from this unique perspective. The principle of empathy is very powerful, but it does have some limitations. First, we only offer one perspective from which to analyze the problem. Secondly, we must exist in order to perceive the problem. In other words, we cannot dissolve or vanish. Thirdly, there is only one of us to interact with the system. If there were more of us to engage, this would open up new possibilities. These challenges are largely mitigated by employing the principle of intelligent little people^[47].

Example—Corrosion Measurement

To illustrate how this works, we need to select something that we have no idea how to execute. Reflecting on the physical phenomena that change with corrosion, we choose the number of active corrosion sites. Before we proceed, we need to assume that there is a finite number of sites across the surface of the sample that meet a certain threshold area. What we would like to determine is the number of sites. How can intelligent little people assist us?

Step 1: Envision the system as made up of intelligent little people who can collaborate. These individuals also have the ability to disappear and reappear if needed. What do they do to achieve the desired outcome? How do they intelligently act together?

We imagine a line of little people linking arms and crossing the sample together. Whenever one of the little people looks down and identifies a corrosion site, she calls out to one of the little people on the sideline who takes note. Once the line of little people has traversed the sample, a final count is conducted.

Step 2: Consider possible physical phenomena that can facilitate this cooperation.

This reminds the author of how a digital scanner operates. It might be feasible to scan a sample, searching for corrosion points that reflect a specific color of light. Each pixel is then counted for the number of corrosion sites.

Summarize the Potential Phenomena

Method

Summarize the phenomena from the previous steps

Explanation

In this section, we provide a summary of the potential phenomena that we have examined in the preceding steps.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

Summarize the phenomena from the previous steps

Electrical Resistance (Patents)
Linear Polarization (Patents)
Galvanic Current (Patents)
Measurement of backscatter from beta radiation (Patents)
Monitor the decay rate of the potential of the electric double layer (Patents)
Alternating Current Impedance (Patents)
Low-Frequency Noise Voltage (Patents)
MRI (Patents)
Reflection of Infrared Radiation (Patents)
Magnetometer for measuring magnetic fields (Patents)
Digital Imaging (Patents/Products)
Corrosion through multiple elements (Patents)
Ultrasound (Patents)
Structural shape of the surface (New)
Fractal Dimension of the Surface (New)
Number of Active Sites (New)
Change in Weight of the Coupon (Patents)
Number of Voids (New)
Porosity (New)
Site Activity (New)
Thickness of the Coupon (Patents)
Height above the Original Surface (Patents)
Volume of the Coupon (Inferred from Patents)
Surface Density (New)
Surface Molecular Weight (New)
Surface Thermal Conductivity (New)
Surface Thermal Capacity (New)
Surface Magnetic Permeability (New)
Surface Magnetic Hysteresis (New)
Surface Curie Point (New)
Surface DC Impedance (New)
Surface AC Impedance (Inferred from Patents)
Surface Electrical Continuity (New)
Surface Ionization Potential (New)
Surface Electric Permittivity (New)
Optical Reflectivity (Inferred from Patents)
Optical Emissivity (New)
Optical Absorption (New)
Optical Scattering (New)
Fringe Pattern of Reflected Light (Patents)
Differences in Digital Images (Products)
Emission from Thermal Fields (New)
Skin Current Impedance (Implied from Products)
Loss of Isotope (New)
Photosensitive Materials Tuned to Specific Frequencies (New)
Scatter Particles Across a Non-Conductive Surface—Measure Time to Loss of Continuity (New)
Resonance of Surface Currents (Existing Products)
Measure Porosity by Evaporation Temperature (Library of Effects)
Capacitance Changes of the Surface (Patents)
Capacitance from an Oscillating Circuit (Patents)
Capacitance Plus Resistance of the Corrosion (Patents)
Capacitance Using Side-by-Side Sensing Plates (Patents)
Resonance of Corrosion (Patents)
Scanning Capacitance Microscope (Patents)

Identify Observer Resources

Explanation of Observer Resources

Let’s review what we have just done. Once we decided on the ideal measurement, we explored POTENTIAL physical phenomena. We have not chosen any of them yet. We have made ourselves aware of the possible methods for performing the measurement. Unfortunately, it is still not the right time to determine how we will conduct the measurement because we need to examine the POTENTIAL ways we could use to deliver the physical phenomena. We aim to familiarize ourselves with the various methods we might use to deliver the phenomena, particularly with minimal use of system resources. There is less flexibility in utilizing existing resources with informing functions due to the additional requirement that a final observer has already been established. The measurement system must integrate with this final observer. In the case of more general useful functions, this requirement does not apply. Anything available in the environment or system is acceptable for delivering the functions.

Method: Abundant Native Fields

Method

Step 1: Create a process map for the product’s life through the relevant life stages.

Step 2: Review the Table of Fields and identify which native fields the subject experiences at each process step. Which of these native fields perform this function, even if poorly?

Step 3: Can any of these fields be utilized in the potential physical phenomena we have identified?

Explanation

Most objects are surrounded by native fields^[48]. These fields do not remain constant throughout the product life cycle. By identifying the fields surrounding the observer, we can locate resources that can perform the function.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

We have been examining corrosion through the use of capacitive load. Is it possible that native fields are already affecting the process?

Step 1: Process map the product life through relevant life stages.

Sample Preparation→Mounting in Container→Mounting Electrodes→Introduction of Acid→Introduction of Voltage

Step 2: Review the Table of Fields and identify which native fields the subject experiences at each process step. Which of these native fields can perform this function, even if only poorly?

Gravity, Buoyant Force, Sound, Waves, Thermal Fields, Ambient Electromagnetic Fields, Light

Step 3: Can any of these fields be utilized in the potential physical phenomena we have identified?

It is possible that weak electromagnetic fields and light (which is also an electromagnetic field) might be applied.

Method: List of Adjacent Elements

Method

Step 1: Create a comprehensive list of adjacent elements, particularly those that were not considered in the super-system functional models.

Step 2: Consider breaking down elements into new components.

Step 3: What fields are associated with these objects?

Step 4: Explore ways in which elements on the list might be utilized to perform the required modification.

Explanation

In this step, we examine ordinary elements around us that might be employed^[49] to deliver the desired physical phenomena. This method is particularly effective with low-level fields such as elastic fields, gravity, pressure, etc.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

We will now consider what resources are nearby that we might utilize.

Step 1: Create a comprehensive list of adjacent elements, particularly those not considered in the super-system functional models.

Since we are already in a testing environment, there are likely resources available: Compressed air, ovens, microscopes, weight scales, electrical power supplies, multimeters, micrometers, ultrasonic cleaning devices, water, vacuum, and intense light used in microscopes and oscilloscopes.

Step 2: Consider breaking down elements into new components.

The water could be split into hydrogen and oxygen. The air could be divided into its basic components: nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other less common gases.

Step 3: What fields are associated with these objects?

Disregarding the measuring devices, the compressed air creates pressure and dynamic pressure fields. The ovens generate thermal fields. The ultrasonic cleaners produce ultrasound. The vacuum sources create negative pressure. The water sources could provide buoyancy and pressure fields. The oxygen and hydrogen could be combined to generate intense energy.

Step 4: Explore ways in which elements on the list might be utilized to perform the required modification.

The ovens could still be used to accelerate reactions, even if they are applied more rapidly.

Method: List of Cheap Abundant Substances

Method

Consider the following list of inexpensive substances. Could any of these be employed to deliver the phenomena you are considering? List of Inexpensive Substances: Powders— Foams— Voids— Water— Ice— Steam— Hydrates— Air— Nitrogen— Carbon Dioxide— Oxygen— Corrosion— Decay— Sand— Soil— Rocks— Waste— Waste Water— Sawdust— Waste Glass— Waste Gases— Waste Paper— Garbage— Yard Waste— Industrial Wastes— Hybrid Substances— Disassociated Forms of Any of the Above— Products of Interactions— Starting Materials— Final Products— Semi-Finished Elements

Explanation

When a function can be delivered at a low cost, the value of the system increases. If there is a way to utilize an inexpensive, abundant substance, it should be attempted. If the phenomenon is weak, it may be feasible to enhance it later.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

What simple and inexpensive substances could be utilized? We could consider using the following:

Micro-voids could be deliberately introduced to induce high rates of localized corrosion
Water is readily available and commonly used
Steam is easily accessible and could be employed to accelerate corrosion
Pure oxygen could be added to increase the rate of corrosion

Method: Nearby Similar Measurement Devices

Method

Step 1: Identify a similar observer nearby that detects or measures similar attributes.

Step 2: Combine and consolidate^[51] both elements into one system.

Explanation

As systems evolve, it is common for several elements in the system to require detection or measurement. Multiple objects may be detected or measured by the same observer^[50]. Sometimes, this same observer can be utilized to carry out the function on both subjects.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

In a testing laboratory environment, there are numerous measurement devices nearby.

Step 1: Identify a similar observer nearby that detects or measures similar attributes.

The measurement devices closest to what we need are dynamic systems analyzers, which are used to identify systems by stimulating them with random input signals and monitoring their outputs. The Fast Fourier Transform algorithms provide a frequency response for the test system. Such a measurement device could be utilized in conjunction with the capacitive sensing we have been considering. It could also be employed to examine skin currents and other parameters we have discussed here.

Other nearby measurement instruments that might be used are digital multimeters.

Step 2: Combine and consolidate^[52] both elements into one system.

The dynamic systems analyzer could effectively serve as the output device for any system that generates voltage, impedance, or current as a function of the measured parameter. In this case, the output being measured is the impedance as a function of the frequency.

Method: Simplified Copy of Current Detection Device

Method

Step 1: Which part of the current observer performs the function?

Step 2: Can a replica of the observer perform the function?

Explanation

Utilizing the current observer can be excessive, particularly if the observer is a human. A simplified version^[53] can often fulfill the same role as the complete observer.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

Since we are not focused on conducting the measurement function with the current approach of weighing the sample before and after corrosion, this method is not applicable.

Method: Merge with Super System

Method

Step 1: Look for functions performed in the super-system that are identical to functions performed in the system.

Step 2: Transfer these functions to the super-system.

Explanation

Sometimes, it is most advantageous to give up functions of the system and transfer them to the super-system. Note that this is an exception to the rule that the subordinate must not serve the superior. There are specific conditions where integration yields significantly higher performance than modularity.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

The current measurement super-system is the laboratory environment or the selected instruments used for corrosion testing. Some devices may be brought into service and become part of the corrosion measurement system.

Step 1: Look for functions performed in the super-system that are identical to functions performed in the system.

Heating the samples in acid requires both the acid used in the existing system and the ovens.

Step 2: Transfer these functions to the super-system.

Heating of the sample in the existing acid is indeed transferred to the new system. While this may seem like an obvious conclusion, it is still important to note.

Summarize the Observer Resources

Method

Summarize the concepts and field resources from the previous steps.

Explanation

Here, we will summarize what we have already learned.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

Summarize the concepts and field resources from the previous steps.

Weak electromagnetic fields present in the corrosion process.
Light (also an electromagnetic field) may be utilized.
Compressed air.
Ovens.
Microscopes.
Weight scales.
Electrical power supplies.
Multimeters.
Micrometers.
Ultrasonic cleaning devices.
Water.
Vacuum.
Intense light used in microscopes.
Micro-voids could be intentionally introduced to induce high rates of local corrosion.
Steam is readily available and could be used to accelerate corrosion.
Pure oxygen could be introduced to enhance the rate of corrosion.
The dynamic systems analyzer.
Acid from the current system.

Identify the Most Ideal Observer

Explanation of the Ideal Observer

When selecting the ideal tools for a function, there are several considerations to keep in mind. We want the tool to be as perfect as possible, but what does this frequently entail? In this section, we explore how to determine if a tool is more suitable. We approach this with the understanding that all tools will impose some burdens on the system. Our goal is simply to minimize those burdens.

Method: Filter for the Ideal Observer

Method

Step 1: Abundance: For the physical phenomenon to have any chance of success, it must be abundant within the system. Summarize the potential phenomena to include only those that have ample resources.

Step 2: Self-Service: Can one of the human senses directly detect the necessary observation?

Step 3: Does the physical phenomenon allow for the disturbance of measurement to be undone? Does it prevent destructive testing?

Step 4: Scalability: Is the physical phenomenon capable of being scaled to larger or smaller dimensions?

Step 5: Familiarity and Localization of Risk: Become as familiar with the phenomenon as quickly as possible to identify the inherent problems and risks. The drawbacks should be confined to one or two areas.

Explanation

The ideal observer possesses numerous characteristics. While we may not be able to fulfill all of them, the more that are satisfied, the more ideal the observer becomes.

Abundance
The availability or abundance of resources to facilitate the physical phenomena must be high. Objects and resources are already present in the environment that can assist in delivering the physical phenomena. We do not assess in this section whether sufficient abundance exists; this will be addressed in the next section. Thus, this section focuses on possible physical phenomena.

Self-Service

One thing that abundance enables is the potential for self-service. Ideally, we would like to add no elements to the system. The function should exist without the addition of objects and substances whenever possible. “Self-service” is one way to achieve this. Sometimes, this is accomplished through native fields in the environment or the system.

Inherent Harm (Contact)
Some tools, along with their associated physical phenomena, require the addition of harmful interactions. This is particularly true for physical phenomena that necessitate contact. If physical phenomena exist that do not require contact, and resources for providing these phenomena are abundant, then consider these over those that necessitate contact.

Multiple Functions Including Passive Control and the Anti-Function

An ideal physical phenomenon can perform multiple functions. The value of objects within a system depends on two factors: the number of useful functions they provide and the burdens they impose. In this case, we focus on the number of functions they offer. It is only feasible to consider multiple functions if other functions within the system are already required. There is no justification for creating functions solely to enable a physical phenomenon to perform additional functions. The secondary function of the phenomenon may serve a supporting role, but ideally, it should act as a primary function that directly influences the system product.

In the context of measurement, it would be ideal for the physical phenomenon to both sense and control. If sensing and actuation are required within the same system, it is optimal to perform both functions with the same entity. Therefore, it is essential that the physical phenomenon is capable of delivering both.

The evolution of systems suggests that they will eventually adopt the anti-function to provide greater value. The anti-function is typically supplied by the super-system but is often overlooked because it may manifest much later than when the product or process is applied. But what does this mean for measurement? Every measurement introduces a disturbance to the system. If you submerge a thermometer into a hot liquid, the liquid must change the thermometer’s temperature for it to register. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. While the thermometer is heated, the liquid cools. Although most measuring instruments are designed to minimize disturbance, a highly accurate measurement might require that the disturbance be reverted, ideally simultaneously with the measurement.

Scalable
An ideal physical phenomenon should be scalable to levels necessary to meet fluctuating demands.

Relative Risk
When transitioning to a new phenomenon to deliver a function, we assume unknown risks. Therefore, it is crucial to understand this new phenomenon as quickly as possible and ensure that the risks are limited to one or two major areas.

Allow for Measurement to be Reversed—Avoid Destructive Testing
Certain measurements require disturbing the system or even causing its destruction. Typical destructive testing often results in the loss of the measured element. This represents an extreme form of contact. We should avoid destructive testing whenever possible. If disturbance is necessary, it should ideally be reversible.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

We have explored numerous methods for measuring corrosion. Some of these were developed to demonstrate the utility of various approaches. Here, we will delve deeper to assess which methods might be more ideal. Following is a compilation of the possible methods that we have evaluated thus far, derived from the summary of Physical Phenomena.

Electrical Resistance (Patents)
Linear Polarization (Patents)
Galvanic Current (Patents)
Measure Backscatter of Beta Nuclear Radiation (Patents)
Measure the Decay Rate of the Electric Double Layer Potential (Patents)
Alternating Current Impedance (Patents)
Low-Frequency Noise Voltage (Patents)
MRI (Patents)
Infrared Radiation Reflection (Patents)
Magnetometer Measures Magnetic Fields (Patents)
Digital Imaging (Patents/Products)
Corrosion Through Multiple Elements (Patents)
Ultrasound (Patents)
Structural Surface Shape (New)
Fractal Dimension of Surface (New)
Active Sites Count (New)
Interaction Site Surface Area (New)
Change in Coupon Weight (Patents)
Void Count (New)
Porosity (New)
Activity of Sites (New)
Coupon Thickness (Patents)
Height Above Original Surface (Patents)
Coupon Volume (Inferred from Patents)
Surface Density (New)
Surface Molecular Weight (New)
Surface Thermal Conductivity (New)
Surface Thermal Capacity (New)
Surface Magnetic Permeability (New)
Surface Magnetic Hysteresis (New)
Surface Curie Point (New)
Surface DC Impedance (New)
Surface AC Impedance (Inferred from Patents)
Surface Electrical Continuity (New)
Surface Ionization Potential (New)
Surface Electric Permittivity (New)
Optical Reflectivity (Inferred from Patents)
Optical Emissivity (New)
Optical Absorption (New)
Optical Scattering (New)
Fringe Pattern of Reflected Light (Patents)
Digital Image Differences (Products)
Emission from Thermal Field (New)
Skin Current Impedance (Implied from Products)
Isotope Loss (New)
Photosensitive Materials Tuned to Specific Frequencies (New)
Scatter Particles Across Non-Conductive Surface—Measure Time to Loss of Continuity (New)
Surface Current Resonance (Existing Products)
Porosity Measurement by Evaporation Temperature (Library of Effects)
Surface Capacitance Change (Patents)
Capacitance from Oscillating Circuit (Patents)
Capacitance Plus Corrosion Resistance (Patents)
Capacitance Using Side-by-Side Sensing Plates (Patents)
Corrosion Resonance (Patents)
Scanning Capacitance Microscope (Patents)

Step 1: Abundance: For the physical phenomenon to be viable, it should be plentiful in the system. Summarize potential phenomena to focus only on those with abundant resources.

Previously, we examined which fields and substances are abundant when considering observer resources. For this example, we will consider equipment generally found in a typical laboratory.

Weak Electromagnetic Fields Present in the Corrosion Process
Light (an electromagnetic field) might be employed.
Compressed Air
Ovens
Microscopes
Weight Scales
Electrical Power Supplies
Multimeters
Micrometers
Oscilloscopes
Ultrasonic Cleaning Devices
Water
Vacuum
Intense Light Used in Microscopes.
Micro-voids could be intentionally introduced to induce high rates of localized corrosion
Steam may be readily available to accelerate corrosion
Pure Oxygen could be added to enhance the rate of corrosion
Acid from the Current System

Now, let’s focus only on phenomena with abundant resources in the laboratory environment. Some of these may be combined.

Measure the Decay Rate of the Electric
Double Layer Potential (Oscilloscope)
Surface Impedance (Oscilloscope or
Multimeter for DC Components)
Corrosion Resonance (Patents)
Linear Polarization (Multimeter, Oscilloscope)
Galvanic Current (Multimeter, Oscilloscope)
Low-Frequency Noise Voltage (Oscilloscope)
Digital Imaging (High-Resolution Digital Camera)
Active Sites Count (Microscope)
Interaction Site Surface Area (Microscope)
Void Count (Microscope)
Activity of Sites (bubble or volume of bubbles formed)
Coupon Dimensions (Micrometer)
Change in Coupon Weight (Scales)
Porosity Measurement by Evaporation
Temperature (Thermocouples, Stopwatch)

Step 2: Self-Service: Can one of the human senses directly detect the necessary observation?

In this context, the level of corrosion would be directly observable and quantifiable by simply smelling, hearing, feeling, or seeing the sample. The most direct observation would likely involve examining corrosion through a microscope and counting the active sites or bubbles.

Step 3: Does the physical phenomenon allow for disturbances in measurement to be reverted? Does it avoid destructive testing?

The only phenomenon that entails destructive testing is the one that permits corrosion to reach a level sufficient to destroy the coupon. This might not be a significant concern since the coupon is intended to be discarded. Conversely, corrosion testing can also be conducted on items in production or in service without the need to create a coupon. This could be useful in specific contexts.

Step 4: Scalable: Is the physical phenomenon capable of being scalable to larger or smaller dimensions?

The phenomena that can be scaled from very large to very small include:

Linear Polarization (Multimeter, Oscilloscope)
Low-Frequency Noise Voltage (Oscilloscope)

Step 5: Familiarity and Localization of Risk: Quickly become acquainted with the phenomenon to identify inherent problems and risks. The drawbacks should be contained to one or two areas.

Most of the drawbacks of linear polarization have been addressed due to the length of time it has been in use.

The issues with low-frequency noise voltage are primarily minor and pertain to algorithms that analyze the statistical parameters of the noise to indicate corrosion levels.

Method: Commercial Measurment Systems

Method

Step 1: Is the commercial product search sufficient for our needs, or do we need to identify systems and subsystems from which we can develop prototypes? Should we conduct another search?

Step 2: Use an internet search engine to find existing products and services. Refine the search by noting and using terminology and names that are common in the industry.

Step 3: If products exist, find locations where you can examine and purchase the hardware.

Explanation

This step addresses two actions we need to take at this point. First, it allows us to confirm whether products exist in the marketplace that perform the required function, and secondly, we want to know what systems and subsystems are available to help us create prototypes and potentially products.

Need for a Commercial Product Search
While it may seem that we have covered our bases regarding commerciality when we conducted the patent search, in reality, we have not. It is easy to assume that patents represent all products. Unfortunately, most inventions are not patented, and many patents are never commercialized. Consequently, we need to go beyond patents and perform searches for commercial products if we want to be certain. On the other hand, our initial product and literature searches may have been sufficient to cover our bases.

Looking for Subsystems and Components
At this point, we may also need to identify system and subsystem elements that we can use to deliver the phenomenon. It makes little sense to build components from scratch if they can already be purchased inexpensively. This aligns with searching for affordable prototyping materials. We might discover that entire systems exist that contain the components we need. Sometimes these can be acquired inexpensively through online auctions and dismantled for the parts.

Example—Corrosion Measurement

Since we have determined that we can measure corrosion using capacitance, let’s continue to search for commercial components that might be utilized to construct parts of the prototype and eventually the components themselves.

Step 1: Is the commercial product search adequate for our needs, or do we need to identify systems and subsystems from which we can build prototypes? Do we need to perform another search?

We really need to identify capacitive sensing components that could be used to detect capacitance. From the previous search, it appears that we have sufficiently covered the bases for capacitive-type corrosion monitoring. However, we will still verify this and then proceed to look for existing systems that sense capacitance to determine other object parameters. Perhaps we can utilize existing systems to measure corrosion.

Step 2: Use an internet search engine to find existing products and services. Refine the search by noting and utilizing nomenclature and names that are common in the industry.

Capacitive sensors have been employed to monitor corrosion in steel-reinforced concrete structures.[54] The principle operates in a different manner than previously imagined. The capacitors are buried in the concrete next to the steel specimen and are then driven by an oscillating signal. The impedance of the capacitor changes based on the levels of ions in the materials. The level of ions in the concrete indicates the extent of corrosion. It is not entirely clear to the author how this occurs unless it results from slight charge separations that happen close to the capacitor, effectively altering the impedance of the capacitor.

Step 3: If products exist, find places where you can examine and purchase the hardware.

Method: Known Disruptive Technology

Method

Step 1: Identify technologies that exist in adjacent markets that appear to be threatening the existing business. These may be low-cost alternatives or alternatives that utilize a different physical phenomenon to deliver the function.

If we consider the disruption of standard coupon testing to be the incumbent technology in the laboratory, then electrochemical means of detecting corrosion would be the disruptive technology.

Step 2: Identify the physical phenomenon that is used to deliver the function. It is likely that this will later be viewed for a hybrid physical phenomenon to satisfy the target market.

Of the electrochemical methods that are currently in use in adjacent markets, the following probably apply:

Surface impedance (Oscilloscope or Multi-meter for DC components)
Linear Polarization (Multi-meter, oscilloscope)

Explanation

In this step, we will consider the direct transition to a disruptive technology. As mentioned in our historical analysis of disruptive technologies, a direct adoption of a disruptive technology can be very disruptive to our own business. A progressive business may choose to do this if they believe that it will also be disruptive to their main competitors, but there are important considerations.

First, this strategy may require the radical creation of products. In order to disrupt existing competition, you will ultimately cannibalize yourself. If your customers begin to buy the new product, they must also cease purchasing your legacy product.

Second, the adoption of disruptive technologies often requires the creation of new business models, usually in completely separate business units from your legacy products.

Third, disruptive technology will need to compete against your biggest customers for resources. Your largest customers are only satisfied if their products reach them without interruption. When resources are diverted to new technologies, this interrupts the flow to them. Most decision-makers will opt in favor of the largest customers, drawing the resources away from the new disruptive technology.

Fourth, adopting disruptive technologies often requires a shift in long-held company values at the highest levels of the business. It is difficult to admit that your business strategy and company values are incorrect. In order to make this kind of change, a significant number of people must be aligned and committed. If they are not convinced, they will likely rebel in passive ways that are hard to detect and counter.

For this reason, it is often best to create disruptive technologies with new business startups. The new business will establish its own business model and supply chain from scratch. For this to work, the resources need to be distinct from the main business in order to avoid competition.

Another approach to engage in disruptive technology is to develop the technology in an adjacent market so that you don’t have to cannibalize yourself. If you select a non-competing market, the need to compete is virtually eliminated.

Method: Hybrid Combination of Phenomena

Method

Step 1: Start with a common physical phenomenon typically used to facilitate the modification.

Step 2: Identify another phenomenon (especially if it is disruptive) that performs the same modification.

Step 3: What feature of the second new phenomenon would enhance its capability?

Step 4: Determine the essential part of the observer that should perform most of the function.

Step 5: Integrate both phenomena into a hybrid. A new capability should emerge. Try combining both as entire subjects or transferring just the desirable feature. Consider enabling the two physical phenomena to interact with one another.

Explanation

The reason for considering this step is that competitors may be encroaching on your market, making it necessary to account for the physical phenomena that this disruptive technology utilizes. We approach this challenge by leveraging hybrid phenomena. Hybrid phenomena involve the combination of two phenomena such that the performance of one complements the other. Consequently, the new phenomena can be employed to better meet the existing market’s needs. Achieving this would be difficult with a sudden shift to the new phenomenon, which often results in performance that falls short of market expectations. According to the evolution of systems, transitioning between physical phenomena typically entails a transitional state characterized by hybrid phenomena. A recent example of this is hybrid electric and petrol-fueled vehicles.

Attempting to satisfy an entrenched sustaining market with a completely new physical phenomenon will likely prove challenging since essential competitive parameters may be compromised. The sustaining market will demand adherence to the performance standards they are accustomed to, despite the s-curve of performance beginning to flatten. In contrast, new markets tend to be more forgiving and might even embrace the weaknesses of the new physical phenomenon as strengths.

The new phenomenon will gain traction as a hybrid and eventually replace the old phenomenon, or it may gain traction as a stand-alone phenomenon in the new market. Clayton Christensen^[55] points out that it is possible for the new stand-alone phenomenon to evolve along its own s-curve and ultimately become a disruptive technology, eroding market share from existing sustaining markets. Additionally, if the existing phenomenon is in the rapid growth stage of the S-Curve, it will be challenging to catch up. Enhanced resources will maintain the performance ahead of the new phenomena.

Rather than fully transitioning to the new phenomena, it is feasible to leverage the rapidly developing advantages of the new system or technology by creating a hybrid^[56] that merges the new and old phenomenon. This approach is extremely valuable when you are dealing with a demanding sustaining market and the resources of the current phenomenon are becoming constrained. This enables a transition to the new physical phenomena while enhancing (rather than sacrificing) performance, which often occurs when jumping to a new method.

Example—Corrosion Testing

Step 1: Begin with a common physical phenomenon that is typically utilized to achieve the modification.

Weight loss from coupons.

Step 2: Identify another phenomenon (especially if it is disruptive) that performs the same modification.

The second disruptive phenomenon is electro-chemical corrosion testing.

Step 3: What is the feature of the second new phenomenon that would enhance its capability?

The feature is the ability to measure corrosion at any point and potentially conclude the test after just a few minutes. This allows for sample screening rather than conducting the entire test only to find that the material is entirely unsuitable for the intended application.

Step 4: Identify the economical component of the observer that should deliver most of the function.

In testing, speed is cost-effective. In this case, the electro-chemical method would be the least expensive.

Step 5: Combine both phenomena into a hybrid. A new capability should emerge. Try to merge both as whole subjects or transfer just the desired feature. Consider facilitating interactions between the two physical phenomena.

The integration of coupon testing and electro-chemical testing is easily achieved by allowing the coupon to continue corroding as long as needed to establish a stable rate of corrosion. (We would expect that the initial measurements may not be stable but rather approach a consistent corrosion level asymptotically). When the test is halted, the sample can undergo the standard examination for weight loss, possibly utilizing a highly sensitive scale to measure before and after results.

Method: Decide the Measurement System

Method

Decide what you intend to do.

Explanation

There are numerous possibilities to consider. If you have followed the steps, you should have ample information to make your decision. However, it is indeed a decision. There are no automatic choices. Some of the information you’ve gathered may lead in conflicting directions.

Example—Corrosion Testing

Decide what you intend to do.

The decision is to proceed with a combination of electro-chemical testing and coupon testing. One important factor influencing this choice is that, from the laboratory testing perspective, electro-chemical testing represents a truly disruptive technology. Industrial standard organizations have demonstrated the feasibility of this testing in a laboratory setting. It is swift and the equipment needed is not particularly costly. There is widespread usage in the related field of corrosion monitoring. Investing heavily in developing alternative technologies may prove ineffective as funding is directed towards electro-chemical testing. Competing against rapidly advancing technologies that are attracting investment is challenging. Employing a hybrid approach allows us to reassure customers that the testing results are reliable while efficiently screening out poor candidates.

References

[1] Inventive Principle #26—Copying: A simplified and inexpensive copy should be used in place of a fragile original or an object that is inconvenient to operate. If a visible optical copy is used, replace it with infrared or ultraviolet copies. Replace an object (or system of objects) with its optical image. The image can then be reduced or enlarged. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 288.

[2] STANDARD 4-1-1. If a problem involves detection or measurement, it is proposed to change the problem so that there is no need to perform detection or measurement at all. Example: To prevent a permanent electric motor from overheating, its temperature is measured by a temperature sensor. If the poles of the motor are made of an alloy with a Curie point equal to the critical temperature, the motor will stop itself.

[3] STANDARD 5-4-1. If an object is alternating between different physical states, the transition is performed by the object itself using reversible physical transformations, e.g., phase transitions, ionization-recombination, dissociation-association, etc. Note: A dynamic balance providing for the process self-adjustment or stabilization may be maintained in the dual-phase state.

STANDARD 5-4-2. If it is necessary to obtain a strong effect at the system’s output, given a weak effect at the input, the transforming substance is placed in a condition close to critical. The energy is stored in the substance, and the input signal acts as a “trigger”.

[4] Inventive Principle #36—Phase Transition: Utilizing the phenomena of phase change (i.e., a change in volume, the liberation or absorption of heat, etc.). Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 289.

[5] Inventive Principle #25—Self-service: An object must service itself and carry out supplementary and repair operations. Make use of waste material and energy. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 288.

[6] The use of critical points is an extension of Standard 1-2-5. There are many physical phenomena that exhibit critical points. Operating about these critical points allows for large forces to be created which, in turn, can be used for actuation. STANDARD 1-2-5. If it is necessary to decompose a SFM with a magnetic field, the problem is solved by using physical effects capable of “switching off” ferromagnetic properties of substances, e.g., by demagnetizing during an impact or by heating above the Curie point. Notes: A magnetic field may appear at the right moment if a system of magnets compensating for the effect of each other’s field is used. When one of the magnets is demagnetized, a magnetic field arises in the system. Example: During welding, it is difficult to insert ferromagnetic powder in the welding zone: an electromagnetic field of a welding current makes the particles move away from the welding zone. It is proposed to heat the powders above the Curie point to make them non-magnetic.

[7] Inventive Principle #10—Prior Action: Perform required changes to an object completely or partially in advance. Place objects in advance so they can go into action immediately from the most convenient location. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 287.

[8] STANDARD 3-1-1. System efficiency at any stage of its evolution can be improved by combining the system with another system (or systems) to form a bi- or poly-system. Notes: For a simple formation of bi- and poly-systems, two or more components are combined. Components to be combined may be substances, fields, substance-field pairs, and whole SFMs. Example: To process sides of thin glass plates, several plates are put together to prevent glass from breaking.

[9] STANDARD 3-1-2. The efficiency of bi- and poly-systems can be improved by developing links between system elements. Notes: Links between elements of a bi- and poly-system may be made either more rigid or more dynamic. Example: To synchronize the process of lifting a very heavy part by three cranes, it is proposed to use a rigid triangle synchronizing the cranes’ moving parts.

[10] Inventive Principle #7—Nesting (Matrioshka): One object is placed inside another. That object is placed inside a third one. And so on. An object passes through a cavity in another object. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 287.

[11] STANDARD 3-1-3. Efficiency of bi- and poly-systems can be improved by increasing the difference between system components. The following line of evolution is recommended: similar components (pencils of the same color) –> components with biased characteristics (pencils of different colors) –> different components (set of drawing instruments) –> combinations of the “component + component with opposite function” (pencil with rubber)

[12] STANDARD 4-5-1. The efficiency of a measuring system at any stage of its evolution can be improved by forming a bi- or poly-system. Notes: To form bi- and poly-systems, two or more components are combined. The components to be combined may be substances, fields, substance-field pairs, and SFMs. Example: It is difficult to accurately measure the temperature of a small beetle. However, if there are many beetles put together, the temperature can be measured easily.

[13] Creativity as an Exact Science—the Theory of the Solution of Inventive Problems, G.S. Altshuller, Gordon and Breach, page 226.

[14] Inventive Principle #20—Continuity of Useful Action: Carry out an action without interruption. All parts of the objects should constantly operate at full capacity. Remove idle and intermediate motion. Replace “back-and-forth” motion with a rotating one. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 288.

[15] Inventive Principle #15—Dynamicity: Characteristics of an object or external environment must be altered to provide optimal performance at each stage of operation. If an object is immobile, make it mobile. Make it interchangeable. Divide an object into elements capable of changing their position relative to each other. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 288.

[16] Inventive Principle #23—Feedback: Introduce feedback. If feedback already exists, change it. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 288.

[17] Greg Yezersky, General Theory of Innovation Feb 2006

[18] The Innovation Algorithm by Genrich Altshuller page 215—While Altshuller’s life was a study of the history of systems, this particular chapter shows the various stages of a technology. Altshuller made it a point to take an existing system and determine the evolutionary history of that particular system.

[19] Invention Machine software.

[20] STANDARD 2-2-1. The efficiency of a SFM can be improved by replacing an uncontrolled (or poorly controlled) field with a well-controlled field, e.g., by replacing a gravitational field with a mechanical field, a mechanical field with an electric one, etc. Notes: In certain situations, controllability of a field may be improved not only by replacing a given field with another one but also by modifying the present field along the following line: Permanent field –> monotonically changing one –> pulsed one –> variable one –> variable in frequency and amplitude –> etc. Example: Instead of a metal blade for non-uniform metal cutting, a water jet can be used.

[21] Inventive Principle #28—Replacement of Mechanical System: Replace a mechanical system with an optical, acoustical, thermal, or olfactory system. Use an electric, magnetic, or electromagnetic field to interact with an object. Replace stationary fields with mobile ones. Fixed with those that change over time. Random with structured. Use fields in conjunction with ferromagnetic particles. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 289.

[22] The Innovator’s Dilemma by Clayton M. Christensen—Harper Business Essentials

[23] Creativity as an Exact Science-The Theory of the Solution of Inventive Problems by G.S. Altshuller. Gordon and Breach. Page 207

[24] 17 Secrets of an Inventive Mind: How to Conceive World-Class Products Rapidly Using TRIZ and other Leading Edge Creative Tools by James Kowalick

[25] 17 Secrets of an Inventive Mind: How to Conceive World-Class Products Rapidly Using TRIZ and other Leading Edge Creative Tools by James Kowalick

[26] STANDARD 4-2-1. If a non-SFM is not easy to detect or measure, the problem is solved by synthesizing a simple or dual SFM with a field at the output. Instead of direct measurement or detection of a parameter, another parameter identified with the field is measured or detected. The field to be introduced should have a parameter that can be easily detected or measured and which can indicate the state of the parameter we need to detect or measure. Example: To detect the moment when a liquid starts to boil, an electrical current is passed through the liquid. During boiling, air bubbles (S2) are formed – they dramatically reduce the electrical conductance of the liquid.

[27] STANDARD 4-3-1. The efficiency of a measuring SFM can be improved by the use of physical effects. Example: The temperature of liquid media can be measured by measuring a change in the coefficient of refraction, which depends on the value of the temperature.

[28] STANDARD 4-5-2. Measuring systems evolve towards measuring the derivatives of the function under control. The transition is performed along the following line: measurement of a function –> measurement of the first derivative of the function –> measurement of the second derivative of the function. Example: Changes in stress in the rock are defined by the speed of change in the electrical resistance of the rock.

[29] STANDARD 5-2-1. If a field has to be introduced in a SFM, one should use first of all the existing fields for which the media are those substances that form the system or its part. Note: The use of substances and fields already present in the system improves the system’s ideality: the number of functions performed by the system increases without increasing the number of components used.

STANDARD 5-2-2. If a field has to be introduced in a SFM and it is not possible to use the fields already present in the system, one should use the fields from the external environment. Note: The use of external environment fields (gravity, thermal field, pressure…) improves the system’s ideality: the number of functions performed by the system increases without increasing the number of components used.

STANDARD 5-2-3. If a field has to be introduced in a SFM but it is impossible to use the fields that are already present in the system or in the external environment, one should utilize the fields for which the substances present in the system or external environment can act as media or sources. Notes: In particular, if there are ferromagnetic substances in a system and they are used for mechanical purposes, it is possible to use their magnetic properties to obtain additional effects: improve interactions between components, obtain information on the state of the system, etc.

[30] No specific reference is provided for this tool. The author has heard rumors that there might be a table of analogous phenomena somewhere in existence in the world. It is not necessary to have a table to use this method, but it would be helpful if such a table existed.

[31] The Innovation Algorithm by G.S. Altshuller, Technical Innovation Center. First Edition 1999 page 174. Used as part of ARIZ 71. “Compare the bypass problem with a tendency (a direction of evolution) in a leading industry.”

[32] Inventive Principle #26—Copying: A simplified and inexpensive copy should be used in place of a fragile original or an object that is inconvenient to operate. If a visible optical copy is used, replace it with infrared or ultraviolet copies. Replace an object (or system of objects) with its optical image. The image can then be reduced or enlarged. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 288.

[33] STANDARD 4-1-2. If a problem involves detection or measurement, and it is impossible to change the problem to eliminate the need for detection or measurement, it is proposed to detect/measure properties of a copy of the object (e.g., a picture). Example: It might be dangerous to measure the length of a snake. It is safe to measure its length using a photographic image of the snake, and then recalculate the obtained result.

[34] STANDARD 4-1-3. If a problem involves detection or measurement, and the problem cannot be changed to eliminate the need for measurement, and it is impossible to use copies or pictures, it is proposed to transform this problem into one of successive detection of changes. Notes: Any measurement is conducted with a certain degree of accuracy. Therefore, even if the problem deals with continuous measurement, one can always single out a simple act of measurement that involves two successive detections. This simplifies the problem significantly. Example: To measure a temperature, it is possible to use a material that changes its color depending on the current value of the temperature. Alternatively, several materials can be used to indicate different temperatures.

[35] This comes from several standards. The first three involve using substance additives as markers. The last states that if a physical substance is required and cannot be used, then a field can be used instead. STANDARD 4-2-2. If a system (or its part) does not provide detection or measurement, the problem is solved by transitioning to an internal or external complex measuring SFM, introducing easily detectable additives. Example: To detect a leakage in a refrigerator, a cooling agent is mixed with a luminescent powder.

STANDARD 4-2-3. If a system is difficult to detect or to measure at a given moment of time, and it is not allowed or not possible to introduce additives into the object, then additives that create an easily detectable and measurable field should be introduced into the external environment. Changing the state of the environment will indicate the state of the object. Example: To detect the wear of a rotating metal disc contacting another disk, it is proposed to introduce luminescent powder into the oil lubricant already present in the system. Metal particles collecting in the oil will reduce its luminosity.

STANDARD 4-2-4. If it is impossible to introduce easily detectable additives into the external environment, these can be obtained in the environment itself, for instance, by decomposing the environment or by changing the aggregate state of the environment. Notes: In particular, gas or vapor bubbles produced by electrolysis, cavitation, or any other method may often be used as additives obtained by decomposing the external environment. Example: The speed of a water flow in a pipe might be measured by the amount of air bubbles resulting from cavitation.

STANDARD 5-1-1-2. If it is necessary to introduce a substance into the system, and it is not allowed, a field can be introduced instead of the substance.

[36] STANDARD 4-2-4. If it is impossible to introduce easily detectable additives into the external environment, these can be obtained in the environment itself, for instance, by decomposing the environment or by changing the aggregate state of the environment. Notes: In particular, gas or vapor bubbles produced by electrolysis, cavitation, or any other method may often be used as additives obtained by decomposing the external environment. Example: The speed of a water flow in a pipe might be measured by the number of air bubbles resulting from cavitation.

[37] STANDARD 4-2-2. If a system (or its part) does not provide detection or measurement, the problem is solved by transitioning to an internal or external complex measuring SFM, introducing easily detectable additives. Example: To detect a leakage in a refrigerator, a cooling agent is mixed with a luminescent powder.

[38] STANDARD 4-2-3. If a system is difficult to detect or measure at a given moment of time, and it is not allowed or not possible to introduce additives into the object, then additives that create an easily detectable and measurable field should be introduced in the external environment. Changing the state of the environment will indicate the state of the object. Example: To detect wear of a rotating metal disc contacting another disk, it is proposed to introduce luminescent powder into the oil lubricant that already exists in the system. Metal particles collecting in the oil will reduce its luminosity.

[39] STANDARD 3-1-1. System efficiency at any stage of its evolution can be improved by combining the system with another system (or systems) to form a bi- or poly-system. Notes: For a simple formation of bi- and poly-systems, two or more components are combined. Components to be combined may be substances, fields, substance-field pairs, and whole SFMs. Example: To process sides of thin glass plates, several plates are put together to prevent glass from breaking.

[40] STANDARD 3-1-2. The efficiency of bi- and poly-systems can be improved by developing links between system elements. Notes: Links between elements of a bi- and poly-system may be made either more rigid or more dynamic. Example: To synchronize the process of lifting a very heavy part by three cranes, it is proposed to use a rigid triangle synchronizing the cranes’ moving parts.

[41] Inventive Principle #7—Nesting (Matrioshka): One object is placed inside another. That object is placed inside a third one. And so on. An object passes through a cavity in another object. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 287.

[42] STANDARD 3-1-3. The efficiency of bi- and poly-systems can be improved by increasing the difference between system components. The following line of evolution is recommended: similar components (pencils of the same color) –> components with biased characteristics (pencils of different colors) –> different components (set of drawing instruments) –> combinations of the “component + component with opposite function” (pencil with rubber)

[43] Inventive Principle #18—Mechanical Vibration: Utilize oscillation. If oscillation exists, increase its frequency to ultrasonic. Use the frequency of resonance. Replace mechanical vibrations with Piezo-vibrations. Use ultrasonic vibrations in conjunction with an electromagnetic field. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 288.

[44] STANDARD 4-3-3. If resonance oscillations may not be excited in a system, its state can be determined by a change in natural frequency of the object (external environment) connected with the system. Example: The mass of boiling liquid can be measured by measuring the natural frequency of gas resulting from evaporation.

[45] STANDARD 4-3-2. If it is impossible to directly detect or measure changes in the system and no field can be passed through the system, the problem can be solved by exciting resonance oscillations (of the entire system or of its part), whose frequency change is an indication of the changes taking place. Example: To measure the mass of a substance in a container, the container is subjected to mechanically forced resonance oscillations. The frequency of the oscillations depends on the mass of the system.

[46] Otto Schmitt is credited with creating the term bio-mimicry.

[47] Creativity as an Exact Science-The Theory of the Solution of Inventive Problems by G.S. Altshuller. Gordon and Breach page 104

[48] STANDARD 5-2-1. If a field has to be introduced in a SFM, one should prioritize the existing fields for which the media are those substances that form the system or its part. Note: The use of substances and fields already present in the system improves the system’s ideality: the number of functions performed by the system increases without increasing the number of components used.

STANDARD 5-2-2. If a field has to be introduced in a SFM and it is not possible to use the fields already present in the system, one should draw upon the fields from the external environment. Note: The use of external environment fields (gravity, thermal field, pressure…) enhances the system’s ideality: the number of functions performed by the system increases without increasing the number of components used.

STANDARD 5-2-3. If a field must be introduced in a SFM but it is impossible to utilize the existing fields in the system or in the external environment, one should apply the fields for which the substances present in the system or external environment can act as media or sources. Notes: In particular, if ferromagnetic substances are in a system and they are utilized for mechanical purposes, it is possible to exploit their magnetic properties to obtain additional effects: improve interactions between components, gather information on the state of the system, etc.

[49] Inventive Principle #6—Universality: an object can perform several different functions; therefore, other elements can be removed. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 287.

[50] Inventive Principle #6—Universality: an object can perform several different functions; therefore, other elements can be removed. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 287.

[51] Inventive Principle #5—Consolidation: Consolidate homogeneous objects in space, or objects destined for contiguous operations. Consolidate homogeneous or contiguous operations in time. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 287.

[52] Inventive Principle #5—Consolidation: Consolidate homogeneous objects in space, or objects destined for contiguous operations. Consolidate homogeneous or contiguous operations in time. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 287.

[53] Inventive Principle #26—Copying: A simplified and inexpensive copy should be used in place of a fragile original or an object that is inconvenient to operate. If a visible optical copy is used, replace it with infrared or ultraviolet copies. Replace an object (or system of objects) with its optical image. The image can then be reduced or enlarged. Genrich Altshuller, The Innovation Algorithm page 288.

[54] Embedded capacitor sensor for monitoring corrosion of reinforcement in concrete—Sitifatimah Abul Rahman, Mohammad Ismail, Norhazilan Md Noor, Hazribakhitiar

[55] The Innovator’s Dilemma by Clayton M. Christensen—Harper Business Essentials

[56] STANDARD 3-1-3. The efficiency of bi- and poly-systems can be improved by increasing the difference between system components. The following line of evolution is recommended: similar components (pencils of the same color) –> components with biased characteristics (pencils of different colors) –> different components (set of drawing instruments) –> combinations of the “component + component with opposite function” (pencil with rubber)

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